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CAUFOKNIA 


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QUEEN  VICTORIA,  187  7 


(OSTON,     B.B.RUSSELL. 


Cro)jm:tgf}t,  187S, 
BY  B.   B.   RUSSELL. 


ALL     RIGHTS     RKSERVED. 


Albert  J.  Wright, 

PRINTER, 

No.  79  Milk  Street  (cor.  of  Federal), 

BOSTON. 


I 


LORD  DUFFEHIH  K.P,  G.C-M.G.,K.C.B. 


BOSTON,     B.B. RUSSELL. 


THE 


I 


PREFACE. 


The  essential  pre-requisite  of  a  rational  patriotism,  is 
an  intelligent  acquaintance  with  the  history  of  one's 
country.  To  supply  the  means  of  making  that  acquaint- 
ance has  been  for  years  the  cherished  purpose  of  the 
writer.  After  long-continued  and  careful  labour,  in 
which  no  pains  have  been  spared,  this  volume  is  sub- 
mitted to  the  public. 

The  author  has  endeavoured  to  describe,  in  as  full 
detail  as  his  prescribed  limits  of  space  would  permit, 
the  picturesque  incidents  of  the  early  history  of  Canada ; 
the  stirring  episodes  of  its  military  conflicts;  and  the 
important  events  leading  to  and  following  the  confed- 
eration of  the  British  North  American  Provinces.  The 
growth  of  the  principles  of  civil  liberty  and  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Canadian  Constitution  will,  it  is  hoped,  be 
found  impartially  traced  in  these  pages. 

The  history  of  the  maritime  provinces,  l^ova  Scotia, 
l^ew  Brunswick,  and  Prince  Edward  Island,  together 
with  that  of  the  newer  provinces  of  the  Northwest  and 
the  Pacific  coast,  as  well  as  that  of  Old  Canada,  has 
been  given  as  fully  as  possible.  The  contemporary  his- 
tory of  the  Empire,  and  of  foreign  countries,  where  it 


6  PREFACE. 

is  intimately  connected  with  that  of  Canada,  has  been 
interwoven  with  the  text. 

The  writer  has  made  copious  use  of  the  best  existing 
sources  of  information,  embracing  original  documents 
in  French  and  English,  parliamentary  reports,  newspa- 
per files  representing  the  views  of  all  political  parties, 
and  many  printed  volumes.  He  has  endeavoured  to 
observe  strict  impartiality,  and  trusts  that  he  has  suc- 
ceeded in  doing  so,  even  in  treading  upon  the  delicate 
ground  of  recent  political  events. 

The  particular  attention  of  the  reader  is  directed  to 
the  carefully  prepared  map  which  accompanies  this 
volume,  without  the  use  of  which,  the  important  geo- 
graphical relations  of  places  and  events  cannot  be  un- 
derstood. A  copious  index  has  been  considered  essen- 
tial to  the  completeness  of  the  work. 

w.  H.  w. 

Toronto,  May  10, 1878. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTEE   I. 

THE  DISCOVERY  OP  AMERICA. 

Ancient  Traditions  — The  Norsemen  in  America  —  Diaz  —  Colnmbns  Discovers 
San  Salvador,  1492  —  His  further  Discoveries,  Misfortunes,  and  Death  — 
Vespucci  —  Da  Gama, 17 

CHAPTER  II. 

EARLY  EXPLORATION. 

The  Cabots  —  Corter6al  —  De  L^ry  —  Verrazzani  —  Jacques  Cartier  Discovers 
the  St.  Lawrence,  1534  —  Roberval,  Viceroy,  1541  — Cartier  his  Lieutenant 

—  Founds  Charlesbourg  —  The  Robervals  Founder  at  Sea,  1549,  .        .        25 

CHAPTER   III. 

THE  INDIAN  TRIBES. 

The  Mound-Buiklers  —  Their  probable  Origin  and  Fate  —  Modern  Tribes  — 
Their  Arts,  Wars,  Superstitions  —  Alliances  —  The  Fur-Trade  —  Tribal  Divi- 
sions —  Present  Condition, 34 

CHAPTER   IV. 

EARLY   COLONIZATION  —  FOUNDING  OF  PORT  ROYAL. 

Spanish  and  English  Colonization  —  Frobisher  —  Magellan  —  Drake  —  Sir 
Humphrey  Gilbert  —  Raleigh  —  Gosnold  —  Hudson  —  Convicts  at  Sable 
Island  —  Chauvin  at  Tadousac — Champlain's  first  Voyage  to  Canada,  1603 

—  The  Tragedy  of  St.  Croix  —  Poutrincourt  Founds  Port  Royal,  1605  — 
Lescharbot  —  The  "Order  of  the  Good  Time"  —  Discord  at  Port  Royal  — 
Mount  Desert  —  Captain  Argall. 44 

CHAPTER   V. 

champlain's  administration. 

Champlain  Founds  Quebec,  1608  —  Explores  Country  —  Iroquois  War  —  The 
De  Caens  —  The  Hundred  Associates,  1627  —  Acadia  —  Kirk's  Conquest  of 
Quebec,  1629  —  Restored  to  the  French,  1632— The  La  Tours  in  Acadia  — 
Death  of  Champlain,  1635  —  His  Character, 57 

CHAPTER  VI. 

ENGLISH  COLONIZATION  —  CANADA  UNDER  THE  HUNDRED  ASSOCIATES. 

English  Colonies  —  Montmagny  —  Madame  de  la  Peltrie  —  Marie  de  I'ln- 
carnation  —  Founding  of  Viile  Marie  (Montreal),  1642  —  Indian  Wars  and 
Treaties  —  The  Jesuit  Missionaries  —  Isaac  Jogues  —  Bressani,    .        .        70 


8  COXTENTS. 

CHAPTER   VII. 

THE  WILDERNESS  MISSIONS. 

The  Huron  Mission  —  Br€lienf,  Lalemant,  Daniel,  Davost  —  Trials  and  Triumphs 
of  the  Missionaries —  Destruction  of  the  Huron  Mission,  1648-1649 — Iroquois 
Ravages  —  The  Onondaga  Mission  planted,  1656  —  Abandoned,  1658  —  Dulac 
dea  Ormeauit  —  Thermopylae  of  Canada  —  Laval  —  Earthquakes, .        .        84 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

ACADIA. 

La  Tour  and  D'Aulnay  —  Their  Feuds  —  Madame  La  Tour's  Heroic  Defence  of 
St.  John  — Its  Capture,  1667  —  Perfidy  of  D'Aulnay  —  His  Death  — La  Tour 
Marries  his  Widow — Le  Borgne  —  Re-conquest  of  Acadia  hy  the  English, 
1654  — It  is  Restored  to  the  French,  1667 105 


CHAPTER  IX. 

KOYAL  GOVERNMENT. 

The  Supreme  Council — De  Mezy — Great  Company  of  the  West  —  De  Tracy 
—  Talon  —  De  CourceUes  —  Mohawk  Wars  —  Seigneurial  Tenure  —  The  Fur 
Trade — Jesuit  Explorations — The  French  on  Hudson's  Bay  —  In  Newfound- 
land,        Ill 


CHAPTER   X. 

DISCOVERY  OF  THE  GREAT  WEST. 

Frontenac  —  Joliet  and  Jlarquetto  Discover  the  Mississippi,  1673  —  La  Salle 

—  Fort  Frontenac  —  Launcti  of  the  "Griffin,"  1679  —  Crfeve  Cceur  —  Mutiny 

—  Tonti  —  Hennepin  —  La  Salle  in  Louisiana  —  Disasters  at  Fort  St.  Louis 

—  Assassination  of  La  Salle,  1687  —  Tragic  Fate  of  Texan  Colony,        .      129 


CHAPTER   XL 

"the  AGONY  OF  CANADA." 

Civil  Disputes  —  La  Barre,  Viceroy  —  Iroquois  Wars  —  Famine  Cove  —  Denon- 
ville.  Viceroy  —  Iroquois  Ravage  Frontier  —  Treachery  of  Le  Rat  (Kon- 
diaronk)  —  Massacre  of  Lachine,  1689, 147 


CHAPTER  XIL 

FRONTENAC'S  SECONT)  ADMINISTRATION. 

Abenaquis  Ravages  —  Massacres  of  Corlaer,  Salmon  Falls,  and  Casco  Bay,  1690 

—  Sir  Wni.  Phips  Captures  Port  Royal  —  Repulsed  at  Quebec — St.  Castine 

—  Fall  of  Fort  Pemaquid  —  Villebon  on  the  St.  John  —  D'Iberville  in  New- 
foundland and  Hudson's  Bay  —  Treaty  of  Ryswick,  1697  —  Death  of 
Frontenac,  1698, 155 


CHAPTER  XIIL 

"  QUEEN  ANN-E'S  WAR." 

De  Calli^^c8  —  Detroit  Founded,  1702  —  Vandreuil  —  Massacres  of  Deerfield  and 
Haverhill  —  Port  Royal  Captured,  1710  — Sir  Hovenden  Walker's  Disastrous 
Attomiit  against  Qnebec,  1711— The  Treaty  of  Utrecht,  1713  —  Charlevoix 
—  Kasles  —  Death  of  Vaudreuil  — The  V^reudryes,       ....      170 


CONTEXTS.  9 

CHAPTER  XIV. 
LOUISBURG— DU   QUESNE. 

Pepperell's  Conquest  of  Lonisburg,  1745  —  Death  of  D'Anville  and  D'Estoiimelle 

—  Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  Kestores  Louisburg,  1748  —  Halifax  Founded, 
1749  —  The  Acadian  "Neutrals"  —  Beau  Sejour  —  Bigot  —  Fort  Du  Quesne 

—  Collision  in  the  Ohio  Valley,  1754, 187 

CHAPTER  XV. 

THE  CAMPAIGN  OF  1755. 

Convention  of  British  Colonists  at  Albany  —  William  Johnson  —  Britisli  Naval 
Victories  —  Braddock's  Defeat  —  The  Expedition  against  Fort  Niagara  a 
Failure  —  Johnson  Defeats  Dieskau  at  Lake  George  —  Capture  of  Beau  Sejour 

—  The  Tragedy  of  Grand  Prd  —  Expulsion  of  the  Acadians,  .        .        .      198 

CHAPTER   XVI. 

THE  CAMPAIGNS  OF  1756  AND   1757. 

The  Seven  Years'  War  begun,  17.56  —  Bradstreet's  Gallant  Exploit  —  Montcalm 
Captures  Fort  Oswego  —  Immense  Booty — Loudon  atLouisburg  —  Montcalm 
Reduces  Fort  William  Henry  —  Massacre  of  Prisoners  —  Exhaustion  of  Can- 
ada —  Famine  —  Extortion  of  Bigot, 210 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

THE  CAMPAIGNS  OP  1758  AND  1759. 

William  Pitt  —  Fall  of  Louisburg  —  Abercrombie's  Defeat  at  Ticonderoga  — 
Bradstreet  Captures  Fort  Frontenac  —  Fort  Du  Quesne  Reduced  —  The  Hero 
of  Louisburg  —  Fall  of  Fort  Niagara  —  Amherst  Reduces  Ticonderoga  — 
Exploit  and  Sufferings  of  Major  Rogers, 219 

CHAPTER   XVIIL 
THE  CONQXIEST  OF  CANADA,  1759-1760. 

Wolfe  at  Quebec  —  The  Fire-rafts  —  The  Siege  opened  —  Straits  of  the  Inhabi- 
tants—  Attack  at  Montmorenci  —  Wolfe's  Illness  —  An  Audacious  Design  — 
The  Battle   of   the  Plains  of   Abraham  — The  Death  of  Wolfe  and  Mont- 

.  calm  —  British  Occupation  of  Quebec  —  Battle  of  Ste.  Foye  —  French  Siege 
of  Quebec  —  English  Fleet  arrives  —  Siege  raised  —  Amlaerst's  Advance  — 
Surrender  of  Montreal  and  Capitulation  of  Canada,        ....      237 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

BRITISH  RULE  —  THE  CONSPIRACY  OF  PONTIAC. 

Beneficial  Effects  of  the  Conquest  —  Military  Government  —  Punishment  of 
Bigot  —  The  Peace  of  Paris,  1763  —  Conspiracy  of  Pontiac  —  Siege  of  Detroit 

—  Massacres  in  the  West  —  Bouquet's  Victory  at  Bushy  Run  —  Sir  Guy 
Carleton,  Governor  —  Law  Reforms  —  The  Quebec  Act,  1764,  .        .      257 

CHAPTER  XX. 

THE  REVOLUTIONARY  WAR. 

Causes  of  the  American  Revolution  —  Concord,  Lexington,  Ticonderoga,  and 
Bunker  Hill,  1775 — American  Invasion  of  Canada — Capture  of  Forts  Chambly 
and  St.  John  —  Montgomery  Occupies  Montreal  —  Arnold's  Wilderness  Raid 

—  Ineffective  Siege  of  Quebec  —  Death  of  Montgomery  —  Defeat  of  Arnold 

—  American  Invasion  Repulsed — Burgoyne's  Surrender,  1777  —  General  Haldi- 
mand,  Governor,  1779  — The  Peace  of  Versailles,  1783  — The  U.  E.  Loyal- 
ists,  273 

2 


IQ  CONTENTS. 

'   CHAPTEK  XXI. 

THE  FOUNDING  OF  UPPER  CANADA. 

Lord  Dorcliester  (Sir  Guy  Carleton),  Governor-General,  1780  — The  Constitu- 
tional Act,  1792  —  Government  of  Upper  Canada  Organized  —  York  (Toronto) 
Founded,  1795  —  Major-General  Hunter,  Lieut.-Governor,  1799  —  Growth  of 
Parties  —  Francis  Gore,  Lieut.  Governor,  1806  —  Judge  Thorpe  —  Social  Or- 
ganization—  Education  —  Eeligion,  etc., 288 

CHAPTER  XXII. 

LOWER  CANADA  —  OUTBREAK  OF  THE  WAR  OF  1812-15. 

The  New  Constitution,  1793  —  McLean's  Treason  —  Sir  James  Craig,  1808-11  — 
Constitutional  Crisis  —  Sir  George  Prevost  —  Causes  of  the  War  of  1812-15 

—  Tlie  "Chesapeake"  and  "Shannon" — "Secret  Correspondence"  —  War 
Declared,  June  18,  1812  —  Canadian  Loyalty  —  Hull's  Invasion  and  Repulse 

—  He  Surrenders  to  Brock,  Aug.  15,  1812  —  Battle  of  Queenston  Heights  — 
Death  of  Brock,  Oct.  13,  1812  —  Dearborn's  Invasion  —  Naval  Engage- 
ments,      299 

CHAPTER   XXIII. 

THE  CAMPAIGN  OF   1813. 

Proctor  at  French  Town  —  Capture  of  York  and  Niagara  —  Victories  of  Stony 
Creek,  Beaver  Dams,  and  Fort  Meigs  —  Defeats  of  Sackett's  Harbour,  San- 
dusky, Lake  Erie,  and  Moravian  Town  —  Death  of  Tecumseh  —  Victories  of 
Chrysler's  Farm,  and  Chateauguay  —  Burning  of  Niagara  —  Retaliation  at 
Lewiston,  Black  Rock,  and  Buflalo  —  Sea  Fights,  the  "Chesapeake"  "Shan- 
non," etc.  •        .        .        •        •      312 

CHAPTER  XXIV. 

CAMPAIGN     OF     1814. 

Victories  of  Lacolle  and  Oswego  —  Battles  of  Chippewa,  Lundy's  Lane,  and  Fort 
Erie  —  Surrender  of  Maine  —  Prevost's  Retreat  from  Plattsbnrg  —  Capture 
of  Washington  —  Burning  of  Capitol  —  Menace  of  Baltimore  —  Ti'eaty  of 
Ghent,  December  24th  —  Battle  of  New  Orleans  —  Valour  and  Patriotism  of 
the  Canadians, 328 

CHAPTER  XXV. 

AFTER  THE  WAR  —  LOWER  CANADA. 
Effects  of  the  War  —  Internal  Development  —  Political  Strive  —  Administra- 
tions of  Sir  John  Sherbrooke,  the  Duke  of  Richmond,  and  Earl  of  Dalhousie 

—  Union  of  the  Provinces  Proposed, 341 

CHAPTER   XXVI. 

AFTER  THE  WAR  —  UPPER  CANADA. 

Clergy  Reserves  —  The  "  Family  Compact ''  —  Robert  Gourlay  —  The  "  Can- 
ada Trade  Act"  —  Rev.  Dr.  Strahan  —  William  Lyon  Mackenzie  —  Robert 
Baldwin  —  Sir  Francis  Bond  Head, 349 

CHAPTER  XXVII. 

THE  REBELLION  —  LOWER  CANADA. 

Political  Disaffection  —  Election  Riot  —  Papinoau's  Grievance  Resolutions  — 
Tlic  (rosford  Connnission  —  Seditious  Gatherings  —  Collision  at  Montreal  — 
Ri'lxas  Kendczvous  at  the  Richelieu  —  Routed  by  Wctherall  and  Sir  John 
Colborno  —  Lord  Dui'ham  —  Hia  Clement  Policy  and  able  Report,         .      363 


CONTENTS.  11 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

THE  REBELLION  —  UPPER  CANADA. 

Struggle  for  Responsible  Government  —  Speaker  Biclwell  —  Mackenzie  Defeated 
—  Rebellious  Projects  —  Apathy  of  the  Government — The  Rendezvous  at  Gal- 
lows Hill  —  Death  of  Colonel  Moodie  —  Dr.  Rolph  —  Van  Egmont  —  Attack 
on  Toronto  —  Rout  of  the  Rebels  —  Colonel  McNab,        ....      373 

CHAPTER   XXIX. 

THE   "patriot"  war. 

Hunters'  Lodges  —  Mackenzie  at  Navy  Island  —  "  The  Republic  of  Upper 
Canada "  —  Colonel  McNab  on  Niagara  Frontier  —  Destruction  of  the 
"  Caroline  "  —  "  Patriot "  Raids  —  Battle  of  Windmill  Point  —  Rebellion  Sup- 
pressed,   382 

CHAPTER   XXX. 

the  union  op  the  canadas. 

Beneficial  Effect  of  Lord  Durham's  Report  —  Hon.  Charles  Poulett  Thompson, 
Governor-General  —  He  Urges  the  Union  Policy  of  Home  Government  —  The 
Union  Act  Passed  —  Responsible  Government  Granted  —  Mr.  Draper's  Clergy 
Reserve  Bill, 390 

CHAPTER   XXXI. 

RESPONSIBLE  GOVERNMENT. 

The  New  Constitution  —  "  Double  Majority  "  —  Municipal  System  —  Sir  Charles 
Bagot  —  Baldwin-Hincks  Ministry  —  Sir  Charles  Metcalfe  —  Constitutional 
Struggle  —  Draper  Ministry  —  Upper  Canada  —  Rebellion  Losses  Bill, .      396 

CHAPTER   XXXII. 

REBELLION  LOSSES  AGITATION. 

Lord  Elgin  —  Fiscal  Emancipation  —  Large  Emigration  —  Baldwin-Lafontaine 
Ministry  —  Lower  Canada  —  Rebellion  Losses  Bill  —  Mob  Violence  at  Mon- 
treal—  Burning  of  Parliament  Buildings  — Lord  Elgin  Mobbed,   .        .      406 

CHAPTER   XXXIII. 

THE      RAILWAY     ERA. 

Political  and  Commercial  Emancipation  —  Internal  Development  —  Clergy 
Reserve  Question  —  Francis  Hincks — Railway  Legislation  —  Municipal  Loan 
Fund, 413 

CHAPTER  XXXIV, 

IMPORTANT  LEGISLATION. 

Gavazzi  Riots  —  Reciprocity  Treaty  —  McNab-Morin  Ministry  —  Secularization 
of  Clergy  Reserves  —  Abolition  of  Seigneurial  Tenure  —  Canada  Steamship 
Company  —  Resignation  of  Lord  Elgin  —  His  Death  —  Crimean  War,  .      421 

CHAPTER   XXXV. 

►  COALITION     MINISTRY. 

Sir  Edmund  Walker  Head  —  Militia  Organization  —  The  Corrigan  Trial  —  Mr. 
John  A.  Macdonald  —  Legislative  Council  made  Elective  —  Commercial 
Crisis — Representation  by  Population  Demanded — Mr.  George  Brown,      430 


12  coy  TEXTS. 


CHAPTER  XXXVI. 

"  RKPRESENTATION  BY  POPULATION." 

T.  D'Arcy  McGeo  —  Ottawa  selected  as  Capital— The  Two  Days'  Ministry— The 
Cartier-Macdonald  Ministry  —  The  " Double-SUutile " — "Joint  Authority" 
Resolutions  —  The  Prince  of  Wales  iu  Canada  —  Outbreak  of  American 
War, 439 

CHAPTER  XXXYII. 

POLITICAL  CRISIS. 

Lord  Monck  —  The  "Trent"  Affair — Militia  Bill  —  Macdonald-Sicotte  Ministry 

—  Commercial    Prosperity  —  Macdonald-Dorion    Ministry  —  Alabama    Pi- 
racies,      451 

CHAPTER  XXXVIII. 

THE  CONFEDERATION  MOVEMENT. 

The  Tach6-Macdonald  Ministry  —  Political  Dead-lock — Coalition  Ministry  — 
Confi'derato  Raids  —  Charlottetown  and  Quebec  Conferences  —  Canadian 
Parliament  Adopts  Quebec  Scheme  —  Close  of  American  War  —  Ottawa  the 
Seat  of  Government, 458 

CHAPTER   XXXIX. 

THE  FENIAN  INVASION, 

Abrogation  of  Reciprocity  Treaty  —  The  Fenian  Brotherhood  —  Its  Plans  — 
Invasion  of  Canada  —  Fight  at  Ridgeway  —  Fenians  Escape — Prescott 
and  Cornwall  Menaced  —  Eastern  Frontiers  Crossed  —  The  Raids  Suppressed 

—  Last  Parliament  of  Old  Canada  —  Monroe  Doctrine  —  Fenian  Trials,      469 

CHAPTER   XL. 

NOVA  SCOTIA,  1755  -  1834, 

Organization  of  Government,  1758  —  The  Revolutionary  War —  United  Empire 
Loyalists  —  The  War  of  1812  -  15  —  Cape  Breton  —  Quit-rent  Claims,  .       482 

CHAPTER   XLI. 

NOVA  SCOTIA,  1834-1867. 

The  "Family  Compact" — Joseph  Howe  —  Constitutional  Struggle  —  Respon- 
sible Government  Granted,  1848  —  Railway  Agitation  —  Confederation  Con- 
ferences —  Anti-Confederate  Re-action, 490 

CHAPTER  XLII. 

NEW  BRUNSWICK,  1784  -  1831. 

Organization  of  Government  —  Col.  Tlionias  Carleton  —  Political  Strife  — 
Timber  Trade  —  Miramichi  Fire  —  Disputed  Territories  —  Baltic  Timber 
Dues, 499 

CHAPTER  XLIII. 

NEW  BRUNSWICK,  1831-1867. 

Sir  Alexander  Campbell  — Crown -land  Grievance- Lemuel  Allan  Wilmot  — 
Struggle  for  Responsible  Government  —  The  Boundary  Dispute  —  The  Ash- 
burtou  Treaty  —  Coxifederatiou  Negotiations, 505 


coxTEyrs.  13 


CHAPTER   XLIV. 

PRINCE  EDWARD  ISLAND. 

Early  History  —  Divided  by  Lottery  —  Organization  of  Government  —  Quit- 
rent  Claims  —  Evils  of  Absenteeism  —  Arbitration  Scheme  —  Confederation 
Rejected  —  Railway  Question  —  Enters  Dominion  —  Land  Question  Set- 
tled,        ...  513 

CHAPTER  XLV. 

CONFEDERATION  ACCOMPXISHED. 

British  North  America  Act  —  Its  Provisions  —  Inauguration  of  New  Constitu- 
tion —  Titles  of  Honour  —  First  Cabinet  —  Sir  John  Young  —  Anti-Confeder- 
ation Agitation —  "  Better  Terms "  Granted  Nova  Scotia,        .        .        .      520 

CHAPTER  XLVI. 

RIVAL   FUR   COMPANIES  —  RED   RIVER   SETTLEMENT. 

Hudson's    Bay  Company  —  French  Fur  Company  —  North-west   Company  — 

—  Fort  William  —  Red  River  Settlement  Planted  —  Fierce  Rivalries,,  and  Con- 
flicts —  Privations  and  Disasters  —  Prosperity  and  Development  —  Council 
of  Assiniboia, 528 

CHAPTER   XLVIL 

THE  RED  RIVER  REBELLION. 

Cession  of  North-west  Territory  —  Hon.  William  Macdougall,  Lieut-Governor  — 
Riel's  Insurrection  —  Insurgants  Seize  Fort  Garry  —  Imprisonment  of  Can- 
adian Loyalists  —  Execution  of  Thomas  Scott  —  Manitoba  Act  —  The 
Wolseley  Expedition  —  Collapse  of  the  Rebellion  —  Last  Fenian  Raid  — 
British  Columbia  Enters  Dominion  —  Its  Previous  History,    .        .        .      537 

CHAPTER  XLVIIL 

CLOSE   OF  THE  MACDONALD  ADMINISTRATION. 

The  Washington  Treaty  —  Ontario  Legislation  —  Lord  Dufferin,  Governor- 
General  —  Geneva  Award  —  Canada  Pacific  Railway  —  Mr.  Huntington's 
Charges  —  Investigation  Committee  —  Royal  Commission  —  Debate  on  the 
Report  —  Resignation  of  the  Ministry, 547 

CHAPTER   XLIX. 

THE  MACKENZIE  ADMINISTRATION. 

Constitution  of  New  Government  —  Dissolution  of  Parliament  —  Simultaneous 
Elections  —  New  Pacific  Railway  Act  —  Qu  -"Appelle  Treaty  —  Religious 
Riots  —  New  Brunswick  Schoot  Law  Troubles  —  Canada  at  Centennial  Ex- 
hibition —  St.  John  Fire  —  Fishery  Award  —  Dismissal  of  De  Boucherville 
Ministry  —  The  Joly  Ministry  —  Party  Riots  in  Montreal  —  Boundary  Award 

—  The  Marquis  of  Lome  —  General  Elections, 558 

CHAPTER  L. 

EDUCATIONAL  PROGRESS  OF  CANADA. 

Primary,  and  Higher  Education  in  Quebec — •Ontario  —  Nova  Scotia  —  New 
Bruuswick  —  Prince  Edward  Island  —  Manitoba  —  British  Columbia         592 


14 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


STEEL    PORTRAITS. 
Her  Majesty  the  Qceen.    (Frontispiece.) 

His  Excellency,  the  Earl  of  Dufferin,  K.  P.,  G.  C.  M.  G.,  K.  C.  B. 
The  Hon.  S.  L.  Tilley,  C.  B.  ;  C.  Z.  Earle,  Esq.  ;  John  Boyd,  Esq. ;  Alexander 
Gibson,  Esq. 

Map  of  Canada. 


WOOD    ENGRAVINGS. 

Page 

Dighton  Rock  Inscription 19 

Old  To-sver  at  Newport, 19 

Cliristopher  Columbus 21 

Fleet  of  Columbus, 22 

Amerigo  Vespucci 24 

Sebastian  Cabot 25 

Jacques  Cartier, 28 

La  Grande  Hermine 29 

Piunning  a  Rapid 39 

Making  a  Portage 39 

Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert 46 

Sir  Walter  Raleigh 4' 

Henry  Hudson, 48 

Samuel  Champlain, 50 

Sieur  de  Monts 51 

View  near  Orillia, 61 

View  on  Lake  Simcoe, 62 

Captain  John  Smith, 70 

Smith  and  his  Captors VI 

Frontier  Block-house 97 

Oliver  Cromwell 109 

Colbert Ill 

Sault  Ste.  Marie  Rapids, 126 

Old  Stone  Towers,  Montreal 153 

Ancient  Halbcrt,  Montreal, 154 

Old  Frontier  Block-house, 156 

Frontier  Village  Palisade, 173 

Old  City  Wall,  Montreal 179 

Pere  Charlevoix 181 

Rasles'  Monument  at  Norridgewock 184 

Sir  William  Peppercll 188 

Siege  of  Louisburg,  1745 1S9 

Benjamin  Franklin ^ 198 


ILLUSTRATIONS.  I5 

Page 

Sir  William  Joliiisoti, I99 

General  Braddock 199 

Fort  Du  Quesne 200 

Lake  George 203 

William  Pitt 219 

General  Abercrombie, 223 

General  Wolfe 229 

Fort  Niagara, 230 

Lord  Amherst 232 

Ruins  of  Ticonderoga, 235 

City  of  Quebec 238 

Siege  of  Quebec,  1759 241 

Old  St.  John's  Gate,  Quebec, 247 

St.  Louis  Gate,  Quebec 249 

Wolfe's  Old  Monument 249 

Wolfe's  New  Monument, 250 

Marquis  de  Montcalm, 251 

Wolfe's  and  Montcalm's  Monument, 252 

Ste.  Foye  Monument, 254 

Richard  Montgomery, 276 

Benedict  Arnold 277 

Walls  of  Quebec ■    ....  278 

Face  of  Citadel  Cliff,  Quebec, 279 

Marquis  de  La  Fayette, 283 

Washington's  Cabinet 285 

Hope  Gate,  Quebec 288 

Joseph  Brant, 298 

Prescott  Gate,  Quebec 300 

Niagara  Frontier, 306 

Colonel  De  Salaberry, 324 

Battle  of  New  Orleans 337 

Hon.  Louis  J.  Papineau, 344 

Sir  John  Beverly  Robinson, 35O 

Palace  Gate,  Quebec 364 

City  of  Kingston 397 

Sir  L.  H.  Lafontaine 400 

Sir  Francis  Hincks, 401 

SirE.  P.  Tache 432 

Sir  John  A.  Macdonald, 433 

Hon.  George  Brown 436 

SirA.  T.  Gait 44I 

Sir  George  E.  Cartier, 442 

Montreal  from  the  Mountain 448 

Sir  William  Fenwick  Williams 447 

Hon.  Antoine  A.  Dorion, 456 

Parliament  Buildings,  Ottawa,               468 

The  •  Great  Eastern "  Steamship, 480 

Hon.  Joseph  Howe 490 

Sir  R.  Graves  MacDonnell, 496 

Hon.  Dr.  Tupper, 497 

Christ  Church  Cathedral,  Fredericton,  N.  B., 510 

Sir  N.  F.  Belleau, 524 

Lord  Lisgar 526 

McKay's  Mountain,  Fort  William, 630 

Kakabekah  Falls, 641 

Hon.  A.  G.  Archibald 542 

Sir  Hugh  Allan, 652 

Hon.  Alex.  Mackenzie 658 


IQ  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Page 

Thunder  Cape,  Lake  Superior, _ 561 

Po8t-Office  and  Bank,  Montreal 573 

New  Custom-IIouse,  Toronto, 674 

PoBt-Office,  Toronto, 674 

Young  Men's  Christian  Association  Building,  Montreal 575 

Union  Station,  Toronto, , 576 

St.  James'  Cathedral,  Toronto, •      .        .  576 

Metropolitan  Church,  Toronto, 577 

Jarvis  Street  Baptist  Church,  Toronto, 677 

Market  Block,  St.  John,  N.  B., 682 

The  Marquis  of  Lome 590 

Toronto  University 592 

Normal  School,  Toronto 598 

€follege  Avenue,  Toronto, 598 

Knox  College,  Toronto,  .        .        .      ' 599 

Seminary,  Yarmouth,  N.  S 602 

University  of  New  Brunswick,  Fredericton, 604 


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THREE  RIVERSyTf^'rR  E  ' 


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7  J  rjn;^.  West  Jram Greeivwioh. 70 


HISTORY  OF   CANADA. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  DISCOVERY  OF  AMERICA. 

Ancient  Traditions  —  Irish  and  Welsh  Claims  —  The  Norsemen  Colonize  Green- 
laud  and  Discover  America  in  the  Tenth  Century  —  Trade  with  India  —  Diaz 
Discovers  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  148fi  —  Columbus  Discovers  San  Salvador, 
1492  —  His  further  Discoveries,  Misfortunes,  and  Death  —  Vespucci  —  Da 
Gama. 

FROM  very  ancient  times  there  were  traditions  of  the  exist- 
ence of  a  Western  World.  Hesiod  sang  of  the  fabled 
gardens  of  the  Hesperides,  and  Plato  wrote  of  the  vast  island 
of  Atlantis,  far  beyond  the  Pillars  of  Hercules,  or  Straits  of 
Gibraltar.  Phoenician  and  Carthaginian  explorers  reported 
the  discovery  of  a  fair  and  fertile  country  beyond  the  Western 
wave.  These  strange  lands,  however,  were  probal)ly  the 
Canary,  Cape  Verde,  or  Azores  islands,  or  possibly  even  the 
famed  Tin  Islands  of  Great  Britain.  The  Thule  mentioned  by 
Pytheas,  a  Greek  mariner  of  about  the  time  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  was  probably  the  island  of  Iceland,  which,  there  is  rea- 
son to  believe,  was  known  at  a  very  early  period. 

The  Irish  and  the  Welsh  have  also  laid  claim  to  the  discovery 
of  the  continent  of  America.  Madoc,  a  legendary  Welsh  prince 
of  the  twelfth  century,  is  recorded  by  the  bards  to  have  returned 
from  a  voyage  of  exploration  with  marvellous  accounts  of 
strange  lands  beyond  the  sunset.  Many  vessels,  it  is  said, 
were  fitted  out  to  accompany  him  upon  a  second  voyage,  but 
they  were  never  heard  of  again.  The  non-maritime  character 
of  the  Welsh  of  that  period,  however,  invalidates  the  veracity 
of  this  story. 

3  [17] 


13  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

Upon  milch  better  grounds  rest  the  claims  of  the  Norsemen, 
of  having,  first  of  the  European  race,  visited  this  Western 
■\Yorkl.  These  brave  old  sea-kings,  swarming  out  of  the 
stormy  North,  early  subdued  a  large  part  of  England,  Belgium, 
and  Normandy ;  and,  under  Eobert  Guiscard,  in  the  eleventh 
century,  made  themselves  masters  of  Sicily  and  Southern  Italy. 
In  the  year  874,  a  strong  colony  of  these  adventurous  spirits 
emiixrated  from  Norway  to  Iceland,  six  hundred  miles  distant  in 
the  wild  northern  sea;  and  in  the  year  1874  was  celebrated  the 
millennial  anniversary  of  the  colony  then  planted. 

It  is  only  one  hundred  and  sixty  miles  from  the  west  coast  of 
Iceland  to  the  east  coast  of  Greenland,  and  this  distance  was 
soon  traversed  by  the  adventurous  barks*  of  the  Norsemen. 
Icelandic  sagas  record,  that  in  the  year  985,  Erik  the  Eed,  with 
twenty-five  vessels,  set  sail  for  Greenland.  With  only  fourteen 
of  these  he  doubled  Cape  Farewell,  and  planted  a  settlement  at 
Eriksfiord,  on  the  west  coast.  For  four  hundred  years  Green- 
land continued  to  be  a  See  of  Rome,  with  a  succession  of  seven- 
teen Christian  bishops.  At  one  time  there  were  more  than 
three  hundred  farms  and  villages  in  this  now  inhospitable 
region. 

The  sagas  further  record,  that  in  the  year  996,  Biarne  Her- 
julfson,  a  Norse  navigator,  sailing  from  Iceland  to  Greenland, 
was  driven  by  a  storm  as  far  west  as  Newfoundland  or  Labra- 
dor. No  landing  was  effected  upon  the  low-lying,  forest-clad 
shores  ;  but  the  news  of  their  discovery  created  a  deep  interest 
among  the  adventurous  Icelanders.  In  the  year  1000,  there- 
fore, Leif  Erikson,  with  a  company  of  five  and  thirty  men,  set 
sail  from  Greenland  to  follow  up  the  discovery  of  Herjulfson. 
They  first  reached  an  island,  supposed  to  be  Newfoundland,  to 
which  they  gave  the  name  of  Helluland,-  and  next,  a  wooded 
coast,  probably  Nova  Scotia,  which  they  called  Markland.  Sail- 
ing southward  for  two  days,  they  again  sighted  land  about  the 

*  Some  of  these  Norse  vessels  were  not  inadequate  to  standing  a  rough 
sea.  The  keel  of  King  Olafs  "Long  Serpent"  was  one  hundred  and  forty 
feet  in  length.  He  had  two  vessels,  capable  of  carrying  two  hundred  men 
each. 


DISCOVERT  OF  AMERICA. 


19 


latitude  of  jSIassacliusetts.  To  this  pleasant  country,  mild  as 
compared  with  their  snowy  Greenland,  they  gave  the  name,  on 
account  of  the  abundance  of  wild-grape  vines,  of  Vinland. 
Here  they  wintered,  and,  in  the  sj^ring,  bore  back  to  Greenland 
the  tidings  of  their  discovery. 

The  following  year,  1002,  Thorwald,  the  brother  of  Leif 
Erikson,  w^ith  a  crew  of  thirty  men,  came  to  Vinland,  and 
after  three  years,  was  killed  in  a  skirmish  with  the  natives,  the 
first  victim  of  the  long  and  bloody  contest  between  the  red  race 
and  the  white  for  the  possession  of  the  continent.* 

In  the  year  1007, 
the  sagas  record, 
Thorfinn  Karlscfne, 
a  rich  Icelander,  with 
his  wife,  Gudrid,  and 
a  company  of  one 
hundred  and  fifty-one 
men  and  seven  wo- 
men, planted  a  colony 
in  Vinland.     A  num-  dighton  rock  inscription. 

ber  of  cattle  and  sheep  were  brought  from  Greenland,  and 
efforts  were  made  to  establish  a  permanent  settlement.  Hos- 
tilities with  the  natives,  however,  compelled  the  abandonment 


*  In  1831,  there  was  found,  near  Fall  Eiver,  Massachusetts,  a  skeleton,  encased 
in  rust-corroded  armour.  This  skeleton,  sanguine  antiquarians  have  thought 
to  be  possibly  a  relic  of  Thorwald 
Erikson.  Associating  it  with  the  old 
round  tower  at  Newport,  shown  in  the 
engraving,  for  which  a  Norse  origin 
is  claimed,  the  poet  Longfellow  has 
made  it  the  subject  of  one  of  his  most 
delightful  ballads :  — 

"  Three  weeks  we  westward  bore, 
And  when  the  storm  was  o'er, 
Cloud-like  we  saw  the  shore 

Stretching  to  leewaixl ; 
There  for  my  lady's  bower 
Built  I  the  lofty  tower, 
Which  to  this  very  hour. 

Stands  looking  seaward."  old  tower  at  NEWPORT. 


20 


HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 


of  the  effort  at  the  end  of  three  years.*  From  a  son  of  Thor- 
finn,  born  in  Vinland,  Danish  genealogists  trace  the  lineal  de- 
scent of  the  celebrated  sculptor,  Bertel  Thorwaldsen.  The 
planting  of  subsequent  colonies  is  recorded  by  the  sagas,  but 
they  were  all  eventually  expelled  by  the  natives,  or  wasted'  by 
famine  or  disease.  The  credibility  of  these  documents  is  ad- 
mitted l)y  competent  critics,  and  is  confirmed  by  the  contem- 
porary authority  of  Adam  of  Bremen,  who  records,  from  the 
testimony  of  the  Danes,  the  discovery  and  settlement  of  Vinland, 
beyond  the  Atlantic  Ocean. f 

Several  causes  consj^ired  to  obliterate  the  memory  of  those 
Norse  colonies  in  Vinland  and  Greenland.  Conflicts  with  the 
natives,  and  the  attacks  of  pirate  fleets,  destroyed  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  colonies,  and  caused  the  abandonment  of  the  see  of 
Greenland  in  1409.  The  awful  pestilence,  known  as  the  Black 
Death,  which,  in  the  fourteenth  century,  desolated  Europe,  so 
greatly  reduced  the  population  of  the  Scandinavian  countries, 
and  interrupted  commercial  intercourse,  that  those  remote  col- 
onies could  no  longer  be  recruited,  and  eventually  passed  out 
of  mind. 

But  the  forgotten  discoveries  of  the  Norsemen  do  not  lessen 
the  glory  of  Columbus  for  his  re-discovery  of  the  Western  Con- 
,tinent.  His  was  no  less  the  commanding  genius  that  wrested 
its  secret  from  the  bosom  of  the  sea,  and  revealed  to  the  aston- 
ished eyes  of  Europe  a  new  world.  He  was  not  the  first  to 
believe  that  the  earth  was  round.     Ptolemy  had  long  before 

*  The  remarkable  Digliton  Eock  Inscription  iu  Massachusetts,  shown  in  the 
engraving,  is  considered  by  some  archteologists  to  be  the  record,  in  runic 
characters,  of  the  colony  of  Thorfinn  Karlsefne.  The  rock  is  eleven  feet  in 
length  by  four  feet  and  a  half  high,  and  consists  of  a  mass  of  gray  granite 
lyiuo-  on  the  sands  of  the  Taunton  Eiver,  which  partly  covers  it  at  every  tide. 
The  figures  are  rudely  carved,  and  partially  obliterated  near  the  base  by  the 
action  of  the  water.  Professor  Eafn,  of  Copenhagen,  interprets  these  thus : 
"Thorfinn,  TVith  one  hundred  and  fifty-one  Norse  seafaring  men,  took  posses- 
sion of  this  land." 

t  There  is  also  evidence  extant  which  indicates,  that  about  the  year  1390,  Nicolo 
Zeno,  a  Venetian  navigator,  visited  Greenland,  and  there  learned  the  existence 
of  lands  to  the  southwest,  supposed  to  be  Newfoundland  and  the  main-land  of 
America. 


DISCOVERY  OF  AMERICA.  21 

demonstrated  this  and  had  measured  the  length  of  a  degree  on 
its  surface  ;  and  in  the  first  English  book  ever  written,  Sir  John 
Mandeville  repeats  the  demonstration,  and  approximately  cal- 
culates the  circumference  of  the  earth  *.  These  truths,  however, 
led  to  no  important  discovery  till  a  great  mind  arose  to  put 
them  to  a  practical  test.  Columbus  lived  in  a  period  of  remark- 
able maritime  adventure.  The  rich  commerce  w^ith  the  East 
in  gold  and  silver  and  precious  stones,  in  ivory,  silks,  and  costly 
spices,  had  stimulated  the  desire  to  find  a  shorter  way  of  access 
to  India — the  land  of  those  coveted  treasures — than  the  tedious 
caravan  route  through  the  Syrian  deserts.  The  invention  of 
the  mariner's  compass,  and  the  increased  knowledge  o'f  astron- 
omy and  navigation  encouraged  the  efforts  to  seek  this  distant 
land  by  sea.  With  this  design  the  Portuguese  had  extended 
their  voyages  along  the  African  coast,  till  at  length,  in  1486, 
Bartolomeo  Diaz  reached  the  southern  point  of  that  continent, 
which  was  named,  as  an  augury  of  the  long-sought  discovery, 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

Christopher  Columbus  now  en- 
deavoured to  solve,  by  a  new  method, 
the  great  maritime  problem  of  the 
age.  He  was  mistaken,  however, 
concerning  the  size  of  the  earth,  but 
not  with  regard  to  its  shape.  He  be- 
lieved it  to  be  not  more  than  ten  or 
twelve  thousand  miles  in  circumfer- 
ence. He  therefore  concluded  that 
by  sailing  westward  about  three 
thousand  miles  he  would  reach  the 
golden  strand  of  India.  To  accom- 
plish this  became  the  absorbing  purpose  of  his  life. 

Columbus  was  born  in  that  cradle  of  maritime  adventure,  the 
port  of  Genoa.  His  ot\ti  inclination  led  him  early  to  follow  the 
sea. '  For  twenty  years  he  traversed  the  Mediterranean  and 
and  Atlantic  seaboard,  and  even  made  a  voyage  as  far  as  dis- 

*  The  Yoiage  aud  Travaile  of  Sir  John  Manndeville,  Kt.,  a.  d.  1356. 


22 


HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 


tant  Iceland.  Here  he  prol^ably  heard  traditions  of  the  former 
discovery  of  a  land  beyond  the  Western  Sea.  He  was  con- 
firmed in  his  convictions  by  the  w^'itings  of  learned  geographers 
and  travellers,  and  by  the  strange  products  of  unknown  countries 
cast  by  western  gales  upon  the  shores  of  Europe.  For  twenty 
years  he  cherished  his  grand  design,  and  for  ten  years  he  went 
from  court  to  court — to  Genoa,  Portugal,  and  Spain —  seeking 
to  inspire  confidence  like  his  own,  and  to  obtain  an  outfit  for 
liis  cherished  enterprise.  After  many  disheartening  rebufis, 
delays,  and  disappointments  from  bigot  monks  and  faithless 
monarchs,  when  impoverished  and  almost  despairing,  the  gen- 
erous Isabella  of  Castile  became  his  patroness,  pledging  even 
her  crown  jewels  for  the  support  of  his  project.     But  the  means 

thus  furnished  were  strange- 
ly inadequate  to  the  magni- 
tude of  the  task  under- 
taken—  only  three  small 
vessels  and  one  hundred 
and  twenty  men.  "With  an 
unfaltering  faith  in  what  he 
believed  to  be  his  provi- 
dential mission  Columbus 
claimed,  and  was  promised  by  the  Sovereigns  of  Spain,  the 
office  of  Admiral  of  all  the  lands  to  be  discovered,  and  one-tenth 
of  the  profit  of  all  their  merchandise. 

After  solemn  religious  rites,  on  Friday,  August  3d,  1492, 
Columbus  and  his  companions  set  forth  on  their  memorable 
voyage.  Leaving  the  Canary  Islands  on  the  6th  of  Septem- 
ber, they  sailed  steadily  westward  for  five  and  thirty  days.  The 
mysterious  trade-winds  seemed  to  the  sailors  to  waft  them 
remorselessly  onward  to  some  dread  unknown.  The  appalling 
distance  they  had  travelled,  the  alarming  variations  of  the  com- 
pass which  occurred,  the  strange  portents  of  a  sea  of  weeds  that 
almost  impeded  their  progress,  and  of  a  fierce  storm  that  fol- 
lowed, aroused  in  the  disafiected  crews  dark  conspiracies  and 
turbulent  mutinies.  But,  with  the  majesty  of  a  great  spirit 
full  of  fiiith,  Columbus  overruled  their  coward  minds.      But 


FLEET  OF  COLUMBUS. 


DISCOVERT  OF  AMERICA.  23 

even  his  courage  at  length  proved  unavailing  against  their  tur- 
bulent fears,  and  he  was  compelled  to  promise  that  if  land  were 
not  discovered  in  three  days,  he  would  abandon  his  life-project. 
But  Avithin  the  allotted  time,  on  the  night  of  October  the  11th, 
lights  were  seen  by  the  eager  watchers,  moving  amid  the 
darkness,  and  the  joyous  cry  of  "  Land  !  land  !  "  rang  from  ves- 
sel to  vessel.  ,  With  the  dawn  of  the  morning,  the  New  World 
lay  revealed  to  European  eyes.  The  discoverers  eagerly  dis- 
embarked upon  the  virgin  strand,  and,  with  tears  and  thanks  to 
Heaven,  kissed  the  ground.  With  devout  prayers  and  hymns 
of  praise,  Columbus  took  possession  of  the  new-found  regions 
in  the  name  of  God,  and  of  his  sovereign  mistress,  Isabella  of 
Castile. 

The  land  proved  to  be  one  of  the  Bahama  Islands,  and  was 
reverently  named  San  Salvador.  After  visiting  several  of  the 
neiglibouring  islands,  designated,  in  accordance  with  his  erro- 
neous geographical  theory,  the  West  Indies,  Columbus  returned 
to  Spain,  to  proudly  lay  at  his  sovereigns'  feet  the  dominion  of 
a  new  world.  He  Avas  crowned  with  the  highest  honours,  and 
the  naval  resources  of  the  kingdom  were  placed  at  his  disposal. 
With  seventeen  ships  and  fifteen  hundred  men,  he  speedily 
sailed  again  to  prosecute  his  discoveries  in  these  unknown  lands. 
In  successive  voyages  he  explored  the  West  Indian  archipelago 
and  the  adjacent  main-land.  But  calumny,  envy,  and  malice 
pursued  his  steps,  and  the  discoverer  of  a  new  world  was  dis- 
possessed of  his  authority,  and  sent  back  in  chains  to  the 
ungrateful  country  which,  beyond  the  dreams  of  avarice,  he 
had  enriched.  Broken  in  health,  bowed  in  spirit,  impoverished 
in  estate,  stricken  with  the  weight  of  seventy  years,  neglected 
by  the  soverign  whom  he  had  so  faithfully  served — his  noble 
benefactress,  Isabella,  no  longer  lived  to  protect  him — this 
great  man  died  at  Seville,  May  20th,  1506.  As  if  his 
remains  could  find  a  fit  resting-place  only  in  the  new  lands 
which  he  had  discovered,  they  were  conveyed  in  1536  to  the 
island  of  Santo  Domingo,  and  in  1796,  with  great  popp,  to 
Havana,  within  whose  cathedral  they  now  repose. 

But  the  greatest  wrong  done  to  Columbus  was  that  which 


24 


HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 


defrauded  him  of  the  honour  of  giving  the  name  to  that  new 

world  which  he  had  found.  Of 
this  he  was  deprived  by  one  of 
the  least  worthy  of  the  numerous 
adventurers  who  followed  the 
path  of  exploration  which  he 
revealed.  Amerigo  Vespucci,  a 
Florentine  navigator,  gave  to  the 
world  the  first  written  narrative 
of  the  wonderful  discoveries  in 
the  western  seas.  It  is  claimed, 
though  erroneously,  that  he, 
first  of  European  navigators, 
VESPUCCI.  reached  the  main-land  ;  hence  his 

name  is  identified  forever  with  the  "Western  Continent.* 

The  coast  of  India,  the  chief  object  of  the  adventurous  voyages 
of  discovery  of  this  period,  was  first  reached  by  the  Portuguese 
navigator,  Vasco  da  Gama,  in  1498.  Eounding  the  stormy  south- 
ern promontory  of  Africa,  the  superstitious  mariner  imagined 
that  he  beheld  the  awful  Spirit  of  the  Cape  hovering  in  the  air. 
Boldly  pressing  onward  through  unknown  seas,  discovering 
strange  lands  and  islands,  he  at  length  reached  the  long-sought 
strand  of  India.  The  revolution  in  commerce  thus  brought  about 
led  to  the  commercial  decline  of  the  maritime  republics  of  the 
Mediterranean,  which  had  previously  been  the  chief  agents  of 
the  lucrative  oriental  trade.  The  adventures  of  Da  Gama  are 
commemorated  by  the  poet  Camoens,  in  the  "  Lusiad,"  the 
earliest  epic  of  modern  Europe. 


*  lie  did  not  reach  Brazil  till  1501. 
on  the  main-laud  of  North  America. 


Cabot  had  previously,  1497,  disembarked 


EARLY  EXPLORATION.  £5 


CHAPTER  II. 

EARLY  EXPLORATION. 

John  Cabot  discovers  Labrador  and  Newfoundland,  1497  —  Sebastian  Cabot's 
explorations  —  Cortercal  —  De  L^ry  —  Verrazzani — Jacques  Cartier  discovers 
tbe  St.  Lawrence,  1534  —  Visits  Stadacona  and  Hocbelaga  —  Names  Mont 
Royal  — Winters  at  Stadacona  —  Sufferings  from  Scurvy  —  Roberval,  Viceroy, 
1541  —  Cartier  bis  Lieutenant  —  Founds  Cbarlesbourg  —  Roberval  winters 
at  Cape  Rouge  —  Mutiny  and  Scurvy  —  Tbe  Robervals  founder  at  sea,  1549. 

THE  discovery  of  America  was  the  beginning  of  a  new  era 
in  the  world.  It  led  to  the  development  of  great  mari- 
time enterprise.  The  western  nations  of  Europe  were  eager  to 
take  possession  of  the  new-found  continent.  Numerous  voy- 
ages of  exploration  were  projected  by  adventurous  spirits 
under  the  patronage  of  their  respective 
sovereigns.  England  was  even  then  lay- 
ing the  foundations  of  her  subsequent 
maritime  supremacy.  Merchants  of  for- 
eign countries  were  welcomed  to  her 
shores  and  found  both  protection  and  pa- 
tronage. Among  these  were  John  Cal)ot 
and  his  sons,  a  Venetian  family  doing 
business  in  the  ancient  seaport  town  of 
Bristol.  Henry  VII.,  king  of  England,  sebastian  cabot. 
eager  to  share  the  advantage  of  the  wonderful  discoveries  that 
were  startling  the  world,  in  1496  gave  a  commission  of  explo- 
ration to  John  Cabot,  on  the  condition  that  one-fifth  of  all  the 
1497.  profits  accruing  should  go  to  the  crown.  The  following 
year,  with  his  son  Sebastian,  afterwards  a  famous  mariner,  he 
sailed  from  the  port  of  Bristol  for  the  purpose  of  reaching,  by 
a  western  voyage,  the  kingdom  of  Cathay,  or  China.  Having 
sailed  seven  hundred  leagues,  he  sighted  the  coast  of  Labra- 
dor, which  he  concluded  to  be  part  of  the  dominions  of  the 
Grand   Cham.     He  landed,   planted   in  the   soil   of  the    New 


26  BISTORT   OF  CANADA. 

World  the  banner  of  England,  and  named  the  country  Prima 
Yista.  He  was  thus  the  first  discoverer  of  the  Continent  of 
America,  fourteen  months  before  Columbus,  in  his  third  voy- 
age, beheld  the  main-land.  Ttvo  days  afterward,  he  reached 
a  large  island,  probably  Newfoundland,  which,  in  honour  of  the 
day,  he  called  St.  John's  Island.  Having  sailed  along  the  coast 
of  North  America  for  three  hundred  leagues,  he  returned  to 
Bristol.  His  discovery  awakened  great  interest.  He  was 
awarded  a  liberal  pension,  and  the  king  gave  him  authority  to 
impress  six  English  ships  and  to  enlist  volunteers,  "  and  theym 
convey  and  lede  to  the  londe  and  ilcs  of  late  founde  by 
the  seid  John."  For  some  unknown  reason  this  expedition 
did  not  take  place,  and  John  Cabot  disappears  from  the  records 
of  the  times.  "He  gave  England  a  continent,  and  no  one 
knows  his  burial-place."* 

The  following  year,  however,  his  son  Sebastian,  with  two 
1498.  vessels,  endeavoured  to  reach  China  and  Japan  by  a 
northwest  passage.  He  sailed  as  far  north  as  Hudson's  Straits, 
the  daylight  in  the  early  part  of  July  being  there  continuous. 
Prevented  by  icebergs  from  proceeding  further,  he  sailed  south- 
ward, skirting  the  coast  of  North  America  as  far  as  Chesapeake 
Bay.  He  landed  at  several  places,  and  partially  explored  the 
fertile  country  he  had  discovered,  with  its  strange  inhabitants, 
clad  in  skins  and  using  barbaric  weapons  of  stone  and  copper, 
but  he  was  greatly  disappointed  to  find  that  he  had  not  reached 
the  wealthy  and  populous  countries  of  the  Asiatic  Continent. 

It  was  in  virtue  of  these  discoveries  that  Great  Britain  laid 
claim  to  the  jDossession  of  the  greater  part  of  North  America. 
In  a  subsequent  voyage  in  1517,  under  the  patronage  of  Henry 
VIIL,  Cabot  penetrated  the  bay  to  which,  a  hundred  years 
later,  Hudson  gave  his  name.  Afterwards,  in  the  service  of 
the  Emperor  Charles  V. ,  he  explored  the  coast  of  South  Amer- 
ica as  far  as  the  La  Plata. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  Portuguese 
sent  an  expedition  to  explore,  and  take  possession  of,  a  portion 

*  This  account  of  John  Cabot,  -which  differs  from  that  generally  given,  is 
based  upon  the  latest  and  best  authorities. 


EARLY  EXPLORATION.  27 

of  the  ne-\v-found  continent.  In  1501,  Gaspard  Corterdal,  with 
two  vessels,  sailed  from  Lisbon.  He  skirted  the  rock-bound 
coast  of  Korth  America,  o])serving  the  fine  harbours,  the  excel- 
lent shipbuilding  material  of  the  forests,  and  the  finny  wealth  of 
the  ocean.  The  name  Labrador — Terra  Lahorador,  land  which 
may  be  cultivated — is  a  memorial  of  this  visit.  With  a  perfidy 
that  disgraced  the  Christian  name,  he  carried  off  fifty-seven  of 
the  natives  on  his  own  vessel  and  his  consort,  for  the  purpose 
of  selling  them  as  slaves.  But  a  terrible  retribution  soon  over- 
took him.  He,  himself,  with  his  ship  and  crew  and  fifty  of  the 
unhappy  victims  of  his  treachery,  sank  in  mid-ocean,  and  were 
never  heard  of  again.  His  consort  alone  escaped  to  tell  the 
dreadful  story. 

The  rich  fisheries  of  the  Banks  of  Newfoundland  were  soon 
visited  by  the  hardy  Breton,  Basque,  and  Norman  fishermen. 
The  name  of  Cape  Breton,  found  on  the  oldest  maps,  is  a 
memorial  of  those  early  voyages.  Denys  and  Aubert,  French 
sailors,  explored  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  in  the  years  1506 
and  1508.  Li  1518,  Baron  De  Lery,  with  a  company  of  colo- 
nists, landed  on  Sable  Island,  ofi"  the  coast  of  Nova  Scotia,  but 
were  compelled  by  its  inhospitable  climate  to  abandon  it.  The 
cattle  that  he  left,  however,  multiplied  remarkably,  and  their 
progeny  have  frequently  furnished  subsistence  to  shipwrecked 
mariners. 

After  the  discovery  of  the  rich  harvest  of  the  sea  that  might 
be  gathered  on  the  Banks  of  Newfoundland,  those  valuable  fish- 
eries were  never  abandoned.  As  early  as  1517,  no  less  than 
fifty  French,  Spanish,  and  Poiiuguese  vessels  were  engaged  in 
this  industry.  The  spoils  of  ocean  from  the  fisheries  of  the 
New  World  formed  an  agreeable  addition  to  the  scanty  Lenten 
fare  of  the  Eoman  Catholic  countries  of  Europe. 

France  had  as  yet  done  little  in  exploring  or  occupying  any 
portion  of  the  boundless  continent,  whose  wealth  was  enriching 
its  European  rivals.  Francis  I.  resolved  to  claim  a  portion  of 
the  prize.  "  Shall  the  kings  of  Spain  and  Portugal,"  he  ex- 
claimed, "  divide  all  America  between  them,  without  allowing 
me  any  share  ?    I  would  like  to  see  the  clause  in  Father  Adam's 


BISTORT  OF  CANADA, 


will  that  bequeaths  that  vast  inheritance  to  them."  He,  there- 
fore, iu  the  year  1523,  dispatched  Verrazzani,  a  Florentine  nav- 
igator, on  a  voyage  of  discovery.  Skirting  the  American  sea- 
board northward  from  the  Chesapeake,  he  laid  claim  to  the 
entire  region  previously  explored  by  the  Cabots,  for  Francis  L, 
under  the  designation  of  New  France.  The  rival  claims  arising 
from  these  explorations  were  the  grounds  of  the  long  and  bloody 
conflict  between  Great  Britain  and  France  for  the  possession  of 
a  broad  continent.*  The  failure  to  discover  gold  or  silver,  and 
the  military  disasters  of  France,  prevented  for  some  time  fur- 
ther exploration  beyond  the  Atlantic. 

The    real     discov- 

""     ~-~  erer  of   Canada  was 

Jacques  Cartier,  a  na- 
tive of  the  ancient 
seaport  of  St.  Malo, 
for  centuries  the  nurs- 
ery of  a  hardy  race 
of  mariners.  In  1534, 
when  France  had 
somewhat  rallied  from 
its  disasters,  fresh 
enterprises  in  the 
New  World  were  un- 
dertaken.  On  the 
20th  of  April  in  that 
year,  Cartier  sailed 
from  St.  Malo  with 
two  small  vessels  of 
about  sixty  tons  each, 
and  a  company,  in 
all,  of  one  hundred 
and  twenty-two  men. 
JACQUES  cAKTiEB.  In    twcuty    daj'S    he 

*  The  name  NoremLega  was  given  to  tlio  River  Penobscot  and  the  regions 
adjacent.  It  was  fabled  that  a  stately  city  of  the  same  name  was  situated 
some  twenty  leagues  up  the  river.  Champlain,  seventy  years  after,  eagerly 
sought  it,  hut  found  nothing  hut  an  old  and  moss-grown  cross  in  the  depths  of 
the  wilderness. 


^%S'"l"!irr.7iim 


EARLY  EXPLORATION.  29 

reached  the  coast  of  Newfoundlaiid,  where  he  was  detained 
ten  days  by  the  ice.  Sailing  through  the  Straits  of  Belle  Isle, 
he  scanned  the  barren  coast  of  Labrador,  and  almost  circum- 
navigated the  island  of  Xewfoundland.  Turning  southwest- 
ward,  he  passed  the  jNIagdalen  Islands,  abounding  in  birds, 
flowers,  and  berries.  On  a  resplendent  day  in  July,  he  entered 
the  large  bay  to  which,  on  account  of  the  intense  heat,  he  gave 
the  name  Des  Chaleurs.  Landing  at  the  rocky  headland  of 
Gaspe,  he  erected  a  large  cross  bearing  tholily  shield  of  France, 
and  took  possession  of  the  country  in  the  name  of  his  sover- 
eign, Francis  I.  He  inspired  such  confidence  in  the  natives, 
that  one  of  the  chiefs  allowed  his  two  sons  to  return  with  him 
to  France.  Learning  from  these  the  existence  of  a  great  river, 
leading  so  for  into  the  interior  that  "  no  man  had  ever  traced 
it  to  its  source,"  he  sailed  up  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  till  he 
could  see  the  land  on  either  side.  The  season  being  advanced, 
he  resolved  to  return,  postponing  further  exploration  till  the 
folloAving  summer. 

The  successful  voyage  very  favourably 
impressed  the  king,  and  three  vessels,* 
better  equipped  and  manned  than  the  first, 
were  furnished,  for  the  purpose,  as  the 
commission  ran,  "  of  forming  settlements 
in  the  country  and  of  opening  traffic  with 
the  native  tribes."  Several  of  the  young 
nobility  of  France  joined  "the  expedition. 
On  Whit-Sunday,  1535,  Cartier  and  his  ^^  ^^^"^^^^  iiermine. 
companions  reverently  attended  high  mass  in  the  venerable 
cathedral  of  St.  Malo.  In  the  religious  spirit  of  the  age,  they 
'received  the  Holy  Sacrament,  and  the  benediction  of  the  l)ishop 
upon  their  undertaking.  The  little  squadron,  dispersed  by  ad- 
verse winds,  did  not  reach  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence  till 
the  middle  of  July.  On  the  10th  of  August,  the  festival  1535. 
of  St.  Lawrence,  Cartier  entered  a  small  bay,  to  which  he  gave 

*ia  Grande  Iiermine,  of  one  hundred,  and  twenty  ton&,  La  Fefite  Hcrmine,  of 
sixty  tons,  and  L'ErmeriUon,  a  smaller  vessel,  with  a  company  of  one  hundred 
and  ten  men. 


30  BISTORT  OF  ay  AD  A. 

the  name  of  the  saint,  since  extended  to  the  entire  gulf  and 
river.  Passing  the  gloomy  gorge  of  the  Saguenay,  and  sailing 
on  beneath  lofty  bluffs  jutting  out  into  the  broad  river,  on  the 
7th  of  September  he  reached  the  Island  of  Orleans,  covered 
with  wild  grapes,  which  he  therefore  named  Isle  of  Bacchus. 
Here  he  received  a  friendly  visit  from  Donnacona,  an  Algon- 
quin chief,  with  five  hundred  of  his  followers.  Seven  days 
after,  having  resolved  to  winter  in  the  country,  the  little  squad- 
ron dropped  anchor  at  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Charles,  where 
stood  the  Indian  town  of  Stadacona,  beneath  the  bold  cliff  now 
crowned  with  the  ramparts  of  Quebec. 

Eager  to  explore  the  noble  river,  Cartier  advanced  with  fifty 
men  in  his  smallest  vessel.  Arrested  by  a  sand-bar  at  Lake 
St.  Peter,  he  took  to  his  boats,  with  thirty  of  his  companions, 
and  pressed  onward,  watching  with  delight  the  ever-shifting 
landscape  of  primeval  forest,  now  gorgeous  with  autumnal 
foliage,  and  the  stately  banks  of  the  broad,  swift  river.  On 
the  2d  of  October,  he  reached  the  populous  Indian  town  of 
Hochelaga,  nestling  beneath  the  wood-crowned  height,  to 
which  he  gave  the  name  of  Mont  Royal,  now  Montreal.  The 
friendly  natives  thronged  the  shore  by  hundreds,  and  received 
the  pale-faced  strangers  with  manifestations  of  the  utmost  de- 
light. With  lavish  hospitality  they  heaped  their  boats  with 
presents  of  fish  and  maize.  An  Indian  chief,  or  as  Cartier 
quaintly  describes  him,  "  one  of  the  principal  lords  of  the  said 
city,"*  with  several  of  his  braves,  came  forth  to  courteously 
receive  the  strangers  and  conduct  them  to  the  town.  This  was 
a  circular  enclosure,  situated  amid  fields  of  ripened  corn.  A 
triple  row  of  wooden  palisades  surrounded  it.  On  the  inside 
were  galleries  for  the  defenders,  with  stores  of  stones  ready  to 
be  hurled  on  the  heads  of  any  assailants.  In  the  centre  was  an 
open  square,  "a  stone's  throw  in  width."  Around  it  were 
some  fifty  large  dwellings,  about  fifty  feet  wide  by  one  hundred 
and  fifty  feet  in  length,  fi\amed  with  saplings  and  covered  with 
bark,    each    accommodating    several    families.       The    inmates 

'*• "...    lu'n  des  principaulx  seigneurs  de  la  dicte  ville." 


EARLY  EXPLORATION.  ^i 

swarmed  around  the  new  comers,  gazing  with  wonder  at  their 
bearded  faces,  glittering  armour  and  strange  attire. 

Soon  an  ample  feast  was  provided  for  the  white  guests. 
After  this  an  aged  and  crippled  chief,  and  a  crowd  of  blind  and 
maimed  and  sick  persons  were  brought  to  the  perplexed  com- 
mander, "as  if,"  he  says,  "a  God  had  come  down  to  save 
them."  Moved  with  pity  he  read  from  the  Gospel  the  story  of 
the  passion  of  the  Saviour,  made  the  sign  of  the  cross,  and 
offered  a  prayer  for  the  souls  as  well  as  the  bodies  of  the 
savages.  With  a  flourish  of  trumpets  and  a  liberal  gift  of 
knives,  beads,  and  trinkets,  the  strange  scene  came  to  a  close. 

Having  ascended  the  neighbouring  mountain,  Cartier  and  his 
companions  surveyed  the  magnificent  panorama  of  forest  and 
river  stretching  to  the  far  horizon ;  a  scene  now  studded  with 
towns  and  spires,  farms  and  villages,  and  busy  with  the 
thousand  activities  of  civilized  life.  From  the  natives  he 
learned  the  existence,  far  to  the  west  and  south,  of  inland  seas, 
broad  lands,  and  mighty  rivers — an  almost  unbroken  solitude, 
yet  destined  to  become  the  abode  of  great  nations. 

After  three  days'  agreeable  intercourse  with  the  friendly  red- 
men,  Cartier  returned  to  Stadacona,  which  he  reached  on  the 
eleventh  of  the  month.  Having  protected  their  vessels  by  a 
stockaded  enclosure,  mounted  with  cannon,  the  French  pre- 
pared, as  best  they  could,  for  the  winter,  which  proved  of  un- 
usual severity.  They  were  neither  adequately  clothed  nor  pro- 
visioned. Scurvy  of  a  malignant  type  appeared.  Eeligious 
processions,  vows  and  litanies  were  unavailing  to  stay  the 
plague.  By  the  month  of  April,  twenty-six  of  the  little  com- 
pany had  died  and  were  buried  in  the  snow.  The  neighbouring 
Indians,  who,  "  hardy  as  so  many  beasts,"  prowled  half-naked 
round  the  fort,  prescribed  for  the  recovery  of  the  sick  an  infu- 
sion of  spruce  boughs,  to  whose  efficacy  Cartier  attributed  their 
restoration  to  health.  The  cruel  w'inter  slowly  wore  away,  and 
when  the  returning  spring  released  the  imprisoned  ships,  the 
energetic  commander  prepared  to  return  to  France.  Before 
his  departure  he  was  guilty  of  an  act  of  perfidy  that  ill  requited 
the  kindness  of  the  natives.     Donnacona  and  nine  of  his  chiefs 


32  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

being  lured  on  board  his  vessels,  thej  were  made  prisoners  and 
carried  as  trophies  of  the  exiDcdition  to  France.*  The  kid- 
nai:)13ed  Indians  never  again  saw  their  native  land,  all  of  them 
dying  before  another  expedition  returned,  having  been  previ- 
ously baptized  into  the  Eoman  Catholic  faith,  with  great  pomp, 
in  the  grand  old  cathedral  of  Eouen. 

The  religious  wars  with  Charles  Y.  now  for  four  years 
absorbed  the  attention  and  exhausted  the  treasury  of  Francis  I. 
At  length,  in  1540,  the  Sieur  De  Roberval,  a  wealthy  noble  of 
Picardy,  obtained  the  appointment  of  Viceroy  of  New  France, 
and  organized  a  colonizing  expedition.  Cartier,  as  his  lieu- 
tenant, sailed  with  five  ships  the  following  spring,  and  reached 
1541.  Stadacona  in  the  month  of  August.  The  natives,  at 
first  friendly,  became  less  so  on  finding  that  Donnacona  and  his 
companions  had  not  returned.  Cartier  therefore  removed  to 
Cape  Rouge,  three  leagues  up  the  river,  laid  up  three  of  his 
vessels,  sent  two  liack  to  France  for  reinforcements,  built  a 
fort,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Charlesbourg,  and  began  to 
cultivate  the  soil.  He  again  visited  Hoclielaga,  and  explored 
the  country  for  gold  and  precious- stones,  but  found  only  some 
glistening  scales  of  mica,  and  some  quartz  crystals  on  the  cliif 
still  known  as  Cape  Diamond.  After  a  gloomy  winter,  having 
1543.  heard  nothing  from  Roberval,  and  the  Indians  proving 
unfriendly,  without  waiting  for  orders,  he  sailed  for  France.* 
At  St.  John's,  Newfoundland,  he  met  Roberval,  with  three  ships 
and  two  hundred  colonists,  of  both  sexes.  Cartier  and  his  com 
pany  were  commanded  to  return,  but,  disheartened  by  their 
disasters  and  suiTerings,  they  refused  to  do  so,  and,  escaping 
under  cover  of  night,  continued  their  homeward  voyage. 

Roberval  proceeded  on  his  course  and  landed  his  little 
colony  at  Cape  Rouge.  A  capacious  structure,  "half  barrack, 
half  castle,"  was  soon  built  for  their  accommodation  and  de- 
fence. The  winter  was  a  time  of  suffering  and  disaster.  Over 
sixty  men  perished  by  cold,  by  famine,  or  by  scurvy.     The 

*  In  1843,  a  portion  of  one  of  Cartier's  vessels  ^xa.9  discovered  in  tlie  bed  of 
tlie  St.  Charles  Elver,  "SN-here  it  had  been  abandoned  three  hundred  and  seven 
years  before. 


EARLY  EXPLORATION.  33 

Indians,  too,  were  unfriendlj'^ ;  and  the  colonists,  most  of 
■whom  were  convicts,  proved  so  insubordinate,  that  the  Gov- 
ernor had  to  hang  some,  and  scourge  or  imprison  others.  In 
the  spring,  with  seventy  men,  Eoberval  attempted  to  J543. 
explore  the  interior,  but  without  beneficial  results,  and  with 
the  loss  of  eight  men  by  drowning.  In  the  fall  of  this  year, 
Cartier  was  again  sent  to  Canada,  to  order  Eoberval's  return. 
He  wintered  for  the  third  time  in  the  country,  and  finally  left 
it  in  May,  1544,  conveying  with  him  the  remains  of  the  ill- 
fated  colony,  and  his  name  henceforth  disappears  from  history. 
Five  years  later,  on  the  return  of  peace,  Eoberval  and  his 
brother  organized  another  colonizing  expedition  to  Canada,  but 
the  fleet  was  never  heard  of  after  it  sailed,  and  probably  foun- 
dered by  encounter  with  icebergs.  Thus  ended  in  disastrous 
failure  all  the  early  expeditious  to  New  France. 

5 


34  HISTORY  OF  CANADA, 


CHAPTER  in. 


THE   INDIAN  TRIBES. 


The  Mouml-Builders  —  Their  Superior  Art,  Manufactures,  and  Social  Organiza- 
tion —  Their  probable  Origin  and  Fate  —  The  Modern  Indians,  probably  an 
intrusive  Asiatic  Race  —  Their  Physical  Aspect  —  Their  Agriculture,  Art, 
Dress,  and  Ornaments  —  Their  Wars,  Craft,  Cruelty,  and  Stoicism  —  Their 
Councils,  Oratory,  and  Treaties  —  Wampum  Belts  —  Their  Religious  Beliefs 
—  Their  Alliances  —  The  Fur-Trade  —  Tribal  Divisions  —  Present  Condition. 

THE  name  Indians,  given  to  the  native  races  of  America, 
commemorates  the  mistaken  idea  of  its  discoverers,  that 
they  had  reached  the  shores  of  the  Asiatic  continent.  A  short 
account  of  these  races,  and  of  their  character,  customs,  and  tribal 
divisions,  is  necessary,  in  order  to  understand  the  long  and 
cruel  convict  between  the  white  man  and  the  red  for  the  pos- 
session of  the  New  World. 

All  over  the  North  American  continent,  from  Lake  Superior 
to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  from  the  Alleghanies  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  are  found  the  remains  of  an  extinct  and  pre-historic 
people.  These  remains  consist,  for  the  most  part,  of  earthen 
mounds,  often  of  vast  extent  and  almost  countless  numbers. 
Hence  their  unknown  creators  are  called  the  Mound-Builders. 
These  strange  structures  may  be  divided  into  two  classes  :  En- 
closures and  Mounds  proper.  The  chief  purpose  of  the  En- 
closures seems  to  have  been  for  defence, —  the  formation,  as  it 
were,  of  a  fortified  camp.  They  were  sometimes  of  great  size, 
covering  many  hundreds  of  acres.  They  were  surrounded  by 
parapets  of  earth,  in  the  form  of  circles,  octagons,  or  similar 
figures.  They  were  evidently  designed  for  protection  against 
an  intrusive  race,  and  formed  a  line  of  forts  from  the  Alle- 
ghanies to  the  Ohio.  Another  striking  form  of  enclosure,  is 
that  designated  Animal  Mounds.  These  are  outlines  in  earth- 
work, of  low  relief,  of  sacred  animals — probably  the  totems  of 


INDIAN  TRIBES.  35 

clifTerent  tribes,  as  the  turtle,  lizard,  serpent,  alligator,  eagle, 
bulMo,  and  the  like.* 

The  mounds  proper  are  of  much  less  extent,  but  of  greater 
elevation.  Some,  there  is  reason  to  believe,  from  the  presence 
of  charred  bones,  charcoal,  trinkets,  etc.,  were  used  as  altars 
for  the  burning  of  sacrifice,  and  perhaps  for  the  offering  of 
human  victims.  Others  are  kno^vn  as  Temple  Mounds.  These 
were  chiefly  truncated  pyramids,  with  graded  approaches  to 
their  tops,  which  are  always  level,  and  are  sometimes  fifty  feet 
in  height.  In  Mexico  and  Central  America  this  class  is  repre- 
sented by  the  Teocallis, —  vast  structures,  faced  with  flights  of 
steps,  and  surmounted  by  temples  of  stone. 

More  numerous  than  any  are  the  Sepulchral  Mounds.  They 
always  contain  the  remains  of  one  or  more  bodies,  accompanied 
by  trinkets,  cups,  and  vases,  probably  once  containing  food  pro- 
vided by  living  hands,  for  the  departed  spirit  faring  forth,  as 
was  fondly  believed,  on  its  unknown  journey  to  the  happy 
hunting-grounds  beyond  the  sky.  The  size  of  these  is  gener- 
ally inconsiderable  ;  but  they  sometimes  attain  great  magnitude, 
in  which  case  they  probably  cover  the  remains  of  some  distin- 
guished chief,  f  Sometimes  earthen  vessels  are  found,  contain- 
ing charred  human  remains,  indicating  the  practice  of  crema- 
tion among  the  Mound-Builders. 

But  there  are  other  evidences  of  the  comparatively  high  state 
of  civilization  of  those  remarkable  people.  There  are  numer- 
ous remains  of  their  art  and  manufactures.  Among  these  are 
flint  arrow-heads  and  axes ;  pestles  and  mortars  for  grinding 
corn ;  and  pipes,  frequently  elaborately  carved  with  consider- 
able artistic  skill.  These  last  often  occur  in  the  form  of  animal 
or  human  figures,  sometimes  exhibiting  much  grotesque  humour, 
and  frequently  executed  in  very  intractable  material.  Remains 
of  closely  woven  textile  fabrics  have  also  been  found,  together 

*  They  are  especially  numerous  in  the  valley  of  the  Wisconsin.  The  "Great 
Serpent "  of  Adams  County,  Ohio,  ia  over  a  thousand  feet  long,  and  the  "  Alli- 
gator "  of  Licking  County  is  two  hundred  and  fifty  feet  long  and  fifty  feet  broad. 

t  One  of  these,  known  as  Grave  Creek  Mound,  in  Virginia,  is  seventy  feet  ia 
height  and  nine  hundred  feet  in  circumference. 


36  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

with  implements  used  in  tlie  spinning  of  the  thread  and  manu- 
facture of  the  cloth.  The  pottery  and  other  fictile  wares  of 
the  Mound-Builders  exhibit  graceful  forms,  elegant  ornamenta- 
tion, and  much  skill  in  manufacture.  On  some  of  these  the 
human  face  and  form  are  delineated  with  much  fidelity  and 
grace,  and  the  features  differ  widely  from  those  of  the  present 
race  of  Indians.  Copper  implements,  the  work  of  this  strange 
jDCople,  are  also  found  in  considerable  quantities.  Among  these 
are  knives,  chisels,  axes,  spear  and  arrow  heads,  bracelets,  and 
]3ersonal  ornaments.  Many  of  these  implements  exhibit  on 
their  surface  the  unmistakable  traces  of  the  moulds  in  which 
they  were  cast,  showing  that  their  manufacturers  understood 
the  art  of  reducing  or,  at  least,  of  fusing  metals. 

But  the  most  striking  proof  of  the  mechanical  skill  of  the 
Mound-Builders  is  their  extensive  mining  operations  on  the 
south  shore  of  Lake  Superior.  Here  are  a  series  of  mines  and 
drifts,  sometimes  fifty  feet  deep,  extending  for  many  miles 
along  the  shore.*  In  one  of  these  was  found,  at  the  depth  of 
eighteen  feet,  resting  on  oaken  sleepers,  a  mass  of  native  cop- 
per weighing  over  six  tons,  which  had  been  raised  five  feet 
from  its  original  bed.  Numerous  props,  levers,  ladders,  and 
shovels  employed  in  mining  operations  were  also  found. 

These  old  miners  had  become  extinct  long  before  the  dis- 
covery of  America,  for  the  present  race  of  Indians  had  no 
knowledge  of  copper  when  first  visited  by  white  men ;  and 
trees,  whose  concentric  rings  indicated  an  age  of  four  hundred 
years,  have  been  found  growing  upon  the  accumulated  rubbish 
that  filled  the  shafts. 

The  commerce  of  the  Mound-Builders  was  also  quite  exten- 
sive. Copper  from  these  northern  mines  is  found  widely  dis- 
tributed through  eighteen  degrees  of  latitude,  from  Lake  Su- 
perior to  the  Gulf  of  INIexico.  Iron  was  also  brought  from 
Missouri,  mica  from  North  Carolina,  and  obsidian  from  Mexico. 

An  examination  of  the  crania  of  those  pre-historic  people 
scattered  over  a  wide  area,  indicates,  together  with  other  evi- 

*  At  Ontonagon  and  Keweenaw  Point,  and  at  Isle  Koyal,  off  the  nortli 
shore. 


IXDIAy  TRIBES.  37 

dcnccs,  that  they  were  a  mild,  unwarlikc  race,  contented  to  toil 
like  the  Egyptian  serfs  in  the  vast  and  profitless  labours  of 
mound-building.  Agriculture  must  have  received  among  them 
a  high  degree  of  development,  in  order  to  the  maintenance  of 
the  populous  communities  by  which  the  huge  mounds  were  con- 
structed. Their  principal  food  was  probably  maize,  the  most 
prolific  cereal  in  the  world. 

The  question,  "Who  were  the  Mound-Builderg ? "  only  in- 
volves the  investigator  in  the  mazes  of  conjecture.  They  seem 
to  have  been  of  the  same  race  with  the  ancient  people  of 
Mexico,  Central  America,  and  Peru.  They  probably  came,  by 
way  of  Behring's  Strait,  from  the  great  central  Asiatic  plateau, 
which  has  been,  through  the  ages,  the  fruitful  birth-place  of 
nations.  As  they  advanced  towards  the  tropical  and  equatorial 
regions  of  the  continent,  they  seem  to  have  developed  the 
civilization  which  met  the  astonished  eyes  of  Cortes  and 
Pizarro.  Successive  waves  of  Asiatic  emigration  of  a  fierce 
and  barbarous  race,  apparently  expelled  them  from  the  Mis- 
sissippi valley  and  drove  them  south  of  the  Rio  Grande.  Prob- 
ably little  will  ever  be  known  of  their  history  unless  some  new 
Champollion  shall  arise  to  decipher  the  strange  hieroglyphs 
which  cover  the  rocky  tablets  of  the  ruined  cities  of  Yucatan 
and  Guatemala. 

Dr.  Daniel  Wilson  expresses  the  opinion,  founded  largely  on 
the  evidence  of  language  and  architectural  remains,  that  the 
earliest  current  of  New  World  population  * '  spread  through  the 
islands  of  the  Pacific,  and  reached  the  South  American  conti- 
nent long  before  an  excess  of  Asiatic  population  had  diffused 
itself  into  its  own  inhospitable  steppes."  *  He  also  thinks  that 
another  wave  of  population  reached  Central  America  and 
Brazil  by  the  Canaries  and  Antilles,  and  that  then  the  intrusive 
race,  from  which  our  Indians  have  sprung,  arrived  by  way  of 
Behring's  Strait,  driving  the  Mound-Builders  before  them.f 

This  intruding  race  was  of  a  fierce  and  warlike  character, 
and,  continuing  its  nomad  life,  never  attained  to  a  degree  of 
civilization  at  all  comparable  to  that  of  the  race  which  they 
*  Pre-historic  Mau,  pp.  604-605.  t  lb.  jJassim. 


38  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

dispossessed.  They  have  certain  common  characteristics, 
though  with  numerous  minor  tribal  distinctions  of  aspect, 
language,  and  customs.  They  were,  for  the  most  part,  a  tall, 
athletic  people,  with  sinewy  forms,  regular  features,  cheek- 
bones prominent,  but  less  angular  than  in  the  Mongolian, 
straight  black  hair,  sometimes  shaven,  scanty  beard,  dark  eyes, 
which,  except  when  the  passions  are  roused,  are  rather  sluggish 
in  exjDression,  and  copper-coloured  skin.  In  some  tribes,  as 
the  Flatheads,  the  artificial  moulding  of  the  skull,  by  means  of 
pressure  applied  in  infancy,  was  common.  They  were  capable 
of  much  endm-ance  of  cold,  hunger,  and  fatigue  ;  were  haughty, 
taciturn,  and  stoical  in  their  manners  ;  were  active,  cunning,  and 
stealthy  in  war ;  but  in  camp  were  sluggish,  and  addicted  to 
gluttonous  feasts.  The  women,  in  youth,  were  of  agreeable 
form  and  feature,  but  through  severe  drudgery  soon  became 
withered  and  coarse.  The  hi2:h  de^^ree  of  health  and  vio^our  of 
the  race,  was  jDrobabl}''  due  to  the  large  mortality  of  weak  or 
sickly  children,  through  the  hardships  of  savage  life. 

The  agTiculture  of  the  native  tribes,  with  slight  exception, 
was  of  the  scantiest  character  —  a  little  patch  of  Indian  corn 
or  tobacco  rudely  cultivated  near  their  summer  cabins.  Their 
chief  subsistence  was  derived  from  hunting  and  fishing,  in 
which  they  became  very  ex]3ert.  ^Yith  flint-headed  arrows  and 
spears,  and  stone  axes  and  knives,  they  Avould  attack  and  kill 
the  deer,  elk,  or  buiFalo.  The  necessity  of  following  these 
objects  of  their  pursuit  to  their  often  distant  feeding-grounds, 
precluded  social  or  political  organization  except  within  very 
narrow  limits.  The  same  cause  also  prevented  the  construction, 
with  a  few  exceptions,  of  any  but  the  rudest  and  simplest 
dwellings  —  conical  wigwams  of  skins  or  birch-bark,  sjDread 
over  a  framework  of  poles.  Some  of  the  more  settled  and 
agricultural  communities  had,  however,  large  lodges  for  public 
assemblies  or  feasts,  and  even  for  the  joint  accommodation  of 
several  families.  Groups  of  these  lodges  were  sometimes  sur- 
rounded by  palisades,  and  even  by  strong  defensive  works,  with 
heaps  of  stones  to  repel  attack,  and  reservoirs  of  water  to  ex- 
tinguish fires  kindled  by  the  enemy. 


IXDIAN  TRIBES. 


39 


The  triumph  of  Indian  skill  and  ingenuity  was  the  bark-canoe 
—  a  marvel  of  beauty,  lightness,  and  strength.  It  was  con- 
structed of  birch-bark,  severed  in  large  sheets  from  the  trees, 


KUXN'ING  A  EAPID. 


stretched  over  a  slender  framework  of  ribs  bent  into  the  de- 
sired form,  and  well  gummed  at  the  seams  with  pine  resin. 
Kneeling  in  these  fragile  barks,  and  wielding  a  short  strong 
paddle,  the  Indian  or  his  squaw  would  navigate  for  hundreds 
of  miles  the  inland  waters,  shooting  the  arrowy  rapids,  and 


MAKING  A  PORTAGE. 


even  boldly  launching  upon  the  stormy  lake.  TVTiere  rocks  or 
cataracts  interrupted  the  progress,  the  light  canoe  could  easily 
be  carried  over  the  ' '  portage  "  to  the  navigable  waters  beyond. 


40  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

The  Indian  dress  consisted  of  skins  of  wild  animals,  often 
ornamented  with  shells,  porcupine  qnills,  and  brilliant  pigments. 
In  summer,  little  clothing  was  worn,  but  the  body  was  tattooed 
and  painted,  or  smeared  with  oil.  When  on  a  war  expedition, 
the  face  and  figure  were  bedaubed  with  startling  contrasts  of 
colour,  as  black,  white,  red,  yellow,  and  blue.  The  hair  was 
often  elaborately  decorated  with  dyed  plumes  or  crests  of 
feathers.  Sometimes  the  head  was  shaved,  all  but  the  scalp- 
lock  on  the  crown.  The  women  seldom  dressed  their  hair,  and, 
except  in  youth,  wore  little  adornment.  Their  life  after  mar- 
riage was  one  of  perpetual  drudgery.  They  tilled  the  fields, 
gathered  fuel,  bore  the  burdens  on  the  march,  and  performed 
all  the  domestic  duties  in  camp. 

The  Indian  wars  were  frequent  and  fierce,  generally  spring- 
ing out  of  hereditary  blood-feuds  between  tribes,  or  from  the 
purpose  to  avenge  real  or  fancied  insults  or  wrongs.  After  a 
war-feast  and  war-dance,  in  which  the  plumed  and  painted 
"braves"  wrought  themselves  into  a  phrensy  of  excitement, 
they  set  out  on  the  war-path  against  the  ol)ject  of  their  resent- 
ment. Stealthily  gliding  like  snakes  through  the  forest,  they 
would  lie  in  wait,  sometimes  for  days,  for  an  opportunity  of 
surprising  the  enemy.  "With  a  wild  whoop  they  would  burst 
upon  a  sleeping  village  and  involve  in  indiscriminate  massacre 
every  age  and  either  sex.  Firing  the  inflammable  huts  and 
dragging  off"  their  prisoners,  they  would  make  a  hasty  retreat 
with  their  victims.  Some  of  these  were  frequently  adopted  by 
the  tribe  in  place  of  its  fallen  warriors  ;  others  were  reserved 
for  fiendish  tortures  by  fire  or  knife.  One  trophy  they  never 
neglected,  if  possible,  to  secure — the  reeking  scalp-lock  of 
their  enemy.  Torn  with  dreadful  dexterity  from  the  skull,  and 
dried  in  the  smoke  of  the  hut,  it  was  worn  as  the  hideous  proof 
of  the  prowess  of  the  savage  warrior.  When  captured,  they 
exhibited  the  utmost  stoicism  in  the  endurance  of  pain.  Amid 
agonies  of  torture  they  calmly  sang  their  death-song,  hurling 
defiance  at  the  foe. 

Their  councils  for  deliberation  were  conducted  with  great 
gravity  and   decorum.     The   speakers   often   exhibited  much 


INDIAN  TRIBES.  41 

eloquence,  wit,  vigour  of  tbouglit,  and  lively  imagination. 
Their  oratory  abounded  in  bold  and  striking  metaphors,  and 
was  characterized  by  great  practical  shrewdness.  They  were 
without  a  written  language,  but  their  treaties  were  ratified  hy  the 
exchange  of  wampum-belts  of  variegated  beads,  having  definite 
significations.  These  served  also  as  memorials  of  the  transac- 
tion, and  w^ere  cherished  as  the  historic  records  of  the  tribe. 

The  Indians  were  deeply  superstitious.  Some  tril^es  had  an 
idea  of  a  Great  Spirit  or  Manitou,  whose  dwelling-place  was 
the  sky,  where  he  had  provided  happy  hunting-grounds  for  his 
red  children  after  death.  Hence  they  were  often  buried  with 
their,  weapons,  pipes,  ornaments,  and  a  supply  of  food  for  their 
subsistence  on  their  journey  to  the  spirit-world.  Others  ob- 
served a  sort  of  fetichism  —  the  worship  of  stones,  plants, 
waterfalls,  and  the  like  ;  and  in  the  thunder,  UghtniAg,  and 
tempest,  they  recognized  the  influence  of  good  or  evil  spirits. 
The  "  medicine  man  "  or  conjurer,  cajoled  or  terrified  them  by 
their  superstitious  hopes  or  fears.  They  attached  great  impor- 
tance to  dreams  and  omens,  and  observed  rigorous  fasts,  Avhen 
they  starved  themselves  to  emaciation  ;  and  glutton  feasts,  when 
they  gorged  themselves  to  repletion.  They  were  inveterate 
and  infatuated  gamblers,  and  have  been  known  to  stake  their 
lives  upon  a  cast  of  the  dice,  and  then  bend  their  heads  for  the 
stroke  of  the  victor's  tomahawk. 

In  the  unhappy  conflicts  between  the  English  and  the  French 
for  the  possession  of  the  continent,  the  Indians  were  the  cov- 
eted allies  of  the  respective  combatants.  They  were  supplied 
witli  knives,  guns,  and  ammunition,  and  the  atrocities  of  savage 
were  added  to  those  of  civilized  warfare.  The  profitable  trade 
in  peltries  early  became  an  object  of  ambition  to  the  rival  na- 
tions, and  immense  private  fortunes  and  public  revenue  were 
derived  from  this  source.  The  white  man's  "  fire-water  "  and 
the  loathsome  small-pox  wasted  the  native  tribes.  The  prog- 
ress of  settlement  drove  them  from  their  ancient  hunting- 
grounds.  A  chronic  warfare  between  civilization  and  barbar- 
ism raged  along  the  frontier,  and  dreadful  scenes  of  massacre 
and  reprisal  stained  with  blood  the  annals  of  the  time. 


42  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

The  great  Algonquin  nation  occupied  tlie  larger  part  of  the 
Atlantic  slope,  the  valley  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  the  country 
around  the  great  lakes.  It  embraced  the  Pequods  and  Narra- 
gansetts  of  New  England,  the  Micmacs  of  Nova  Scotia,  the 
Abenaquis  of  New  Brunswick,  the  Montagnais  and  Ottawas  of 
Quebec,  the  Ojibways  or  Chippeways  on  the  great  lakes,  and 
the  Crees  and  Sioux  of  the  far  west. 

The  Ilurons  and  Iroquois  were  allied  races,  though  for  ages 
the  most  deadly  enemies.  They  were  more  addicted  to  agri- 
culture than  the  Algonquins,  and  dwelt  in  better  houses,  but 
they  were  equally  fierce  and  implaca])le.  The  Hurons  chiefly 
occupied  the  county  between  Lakes  Erie,  Ontario,  and  Huron, 
and  the  northern  bank  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  Their  principal 
settlement,  till  well-nigh  exterminated  by  the  Iroquois,  was 
between  Lake  Simcoe  and  the  Georgian  Bay. 

The  Iroquois  or  Five  Nations  occupied  northern  New  York, 
from  the  Mohawk  Eiver  to  the  Genesee.  The  confederacy 
embraced  the  Mohawks,  Oneidas,  Onondagas,  Cayugas,  and 
Senecas,  and  was  afterwards  joined  by  the  Tuscaroras  from 
South  Carolina.  Each  tribe,  however,  asserted  its  independ- 
ence, and  made  war  or  peace  on  its  own  account,  as  was 
shown  by  many  a  cruel  raid  upon  Montreal  or  Quebec  in  a 
time  of  nominal  truce  with  the  confederacy.  They  were  the 
most  cruel  and  blood-thirsty  of  all  the  savage  tribes  —  skilful  in 
war,  cunning  in  policy,  and  ruthless  in  slaughter.  They  were 
chiefly  the  allies  of  the  British,  and  proved  a  thorn  in  the  side 
of  the  French  for  a  hundred  and  fifty  years.  The  latter, 
through  their  missions,  early  acquired  an  ascendency  over  the 
Algonquin  and  Huron  tribes.  Several  of  the  Indian  children 
were  educated  in  Catholic  schools,  and  some  of  the  girls  even 
became  nuns. 

After  the  British  conquest  of  Canada,  the  Indians  were 
gathered  into  reserves  under  military  superintendents  at  Caugh- 
nawaga,  the  Bay  of  Quints,  Grand  River,  Credit  Eiver,  Kice 
Lake,  Eiver  Thames,  Manitoulin  and  TTalpole  Islands,  and 
elsewhere.  They  were  supplied  with  annual  presents  of  knives, 
guns,  ammunition,  blankets,  trinkets,  grain,  implements,  and 


INDIAN   TRIBES.  43 

the  like.  Special  efforts  have  been  made,  with  marked  success, 
for  their  education  in  religion,  agricultural  industry,  and  secu- 
lar learning.  Many  tribes  have  been  raised  from  barbarism  to 
Christian  civilization,  although  a  few  of  the  old  men  cling  to 
the  faith  of  their  fathers,  and  worship  the  Great  Spirit,  beat  the 
conjurer's  drum,  and  sacrifice  the  white  dog.  The  reserves  are 
under  the  charge  of  an  Indian  agent,  who  watches  over  the 
interests  of  the  tribe,  and  prevents  the  alienation  of  its  prop- 
erty. The  Indians  seem  contented  with  their  lot,  though  their 
natural  apathy  prevents  the  growth  of  industrial  enterprise, 
and  many  of  the  men  leave  home  for  months  on  hunting  or 
trapping  excursions.  They  profess  deep  loyalty  to  the  Crown 
and  to  their  great  ' '  White  ISIother  "  beyond  the  sea. 

In  the  new  provinces  of  Manitoba  and  Keewatin,  and  in  the 
North-w^est  Territory  are  numerous  tribes  of  plain  or  forest 
Indians,  for  whom  civilization  has  as  yet  done  little.  They  sub- 
sist chiefly  by  buffalo-hunting,  fishing,  and  collecting  peltries  for 
the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  and  other  great  fur  traders.  Mis- 
sionaries, both  Protestant  and  Roman  Catholic,  have,  wath  self- 
denying  zeal,  laboured  for  their  spiritual  welfare,  and  in  many 
cases  with  very  considerable  success.  Treaties  have  been  made 
with  many  of  these  tribes,  and  liberal  land  reserves  secured  to 
them. 

The  Indian  tribes  in  the  Pacific  province  of  British  Columbia 
are,  for  the  most  part,  pagan  and  savage.  Those  on  the  sea- 
coast  live  principally  by  fishing,  in  which  they  exhibit  great 
dexterity.  They  hollow  out,  with  much  patient  labour,  huge 
canoes  from  a  single  tree-trunk.*  They  also  build  large  framed 
and  bark-covered  lodges,  which  will  accommodate  several  fam- 
ilies. In  front  of  these  they  will  often  erect  a  lofty  tree-trunk, 
carved  into  hideous,  grotesque  representations  of  the  human 
fiice  and  figure,  bedaubed  with  bright,  crude  pigments,  f 

*  One,  at  the  American  Centennial  Exhibition,  was  sixty  feet  long, 
t  Some  of  these  are  over  thirty  feet  high,  elaborately  carved  from  top  to 
bottom. 


44  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

EARLY  COLONIZATION— FOUNDING  OF  PORT  ROYAL. 

Spanish  and  English  Colonization  —  Frobisher  explores  the  Arctic  Seas,  1576  — 
Magellan  —  Drake  —  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert  —  Raleigh's  unsuccessful  Colony 
at  Roanoke,  1585  —  Gosnold  —  Hudson  —  De  la  Roche  lands  Convicts  at  Sable 
Island  —  Their  tragic  fate  —  Chauvin  plants  a  Trading  Post  at  Tadousac,  1600 

—  Champlain's  first  Voyage  to  Canada,  1603  —  The  Tragedy  of  St.  Croix  — 
Poutrincourt  founds  Port  Royal,  1605  —  Lescharbot  —  The  "Order  of  the 
Good  Time  "  —  Charter  cancelled  —  Discord  at  Port  Royal  —  Mount  Desert 

—  Captain  Argall. 

FOR  fifty  years  after  the  failure  of  Roberval,  there  was  no 
further  attempt  to  colonize  Canada.  France,  engaged  in 
her  prolonged  struggle  with  Spain  and  Austria,  and  convulsed 
by  the  civil  wars  of  religion,  had  neither  men  nor  means  to 
spare  for  foreign  settlement. 

Spain  had  early  claimed  the  whole  continent,  from  the  Gulf 
1513.  of  Mexico  to  Labrador.  Balboa,  from  the  mountains  of 
Darien,  had  descried  the  Pacific,  and  dispelled  the  illusion  that 
15S1.  America  was  a  part  of  Asia.  Cortez,  with  a  handful  of 
followers,  had  taken  and  sacked  the  populous  city  of  Mexico.* 
Ponce  de  Leon  had  sought  amid  the  everglades  of  Florida  a 
fountain  of  youth,  and  found  an  early  grave.  Ferdinand  de 
1543.  Soto  had  discovered  the  mighty  Mississippi,  and  been 
buried  beneath  its  waters.  In  1565  was  founded  St.  Augus- 
tine, the  oldest  town  in  America,  f  Admiral  Coligny,  the  leader 
of  the  French  Protestants,  had  already  planted  a  private  Hu- 

*  In  1530,  Spanish  valour,  led  by  Pizarro,  conquered  the  kingdom  of  Peru, 
and  Spanish  cruelty  well  nigh  exterminated  the  inhabitants. 

t  The  dates  of  the  earliest  settlements  are  as  follows  :  — St.  Augustine,  1565 ; 
Port  Royal,  1605 ;  Jamestown,  1607  ;  Quebec,  1608 ;  Albany,  1615 ;  Plymouth, 
1620;  New  York,  1623,  Boston,  1630;  Montreal,  1642;  Frontenac  (Kingston), 
1672;  Philadelphia,  1683;  Detroit,  1702;  New  Orleans,  1718;  Halifax,  1749; 
St.  John,  1783}  Toronto,  1795. 


EARLY  COLONIZATION.  45 

guenot  colony  in  Florida ;  but  through  the  jealousy  of  iscs. 
the  Spaniards  at  St.  Augustine,  it  was  utterly  destroyed,  with 
the  atrocious  murder  of  eight  hundred  Frenchmen.  Their 
countryman,  De  Gourges,  terribly  avenged  their  death. 

The  hope  of  finding  a  northwest  passage  to  the  Indies  con- 
tinued to  be  a  strong  incentive  to  North  American  exploration. 
In  1553,  Sir  Hugh  Willoughby,  in  attempting  a  northwest  pas- 
sage to  China,  perished  of  cold  in  a  harbour  in  Lapland.  The 
following  year,  he,  with  his  crew,  were  found  frozen  to  marble 
in  their  oak-ribbed  sepulchre.  In  1576,  Martin  Frobisher,  an 
English  mariner,  again  essayed  the  task,  "  as  the  only  thing  in 
the  world  yet  left  undone,  by  which  a  notable  minde  might  be 
made  famous  and  fortunate."  In  a  vessel  of  only  fivo«ind 
twenty  tons,  he  reached  the  straits  still  known  by  his  name. 
He  took  possession  of  a  barren  island  in  the  name  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  and  found  in  its  soil  some  gi-ains  of  gold  or  what 
resembled  it.  A  gold  mania  ensued.  Two  successive  fleets, 
one  of  fifteen  vessels,  were  despatched  to  the  arctic  El  Dorado. 
Several  of  the  vessels  were  wrecked  or  driven  from  their 
course  ;  the  others  returned,  laden  with  hundreds  of  tons  of 
glittering  mica.  The  discoveiy  of  its  worthlessness  ended  the 
attempt  at  arctic  colonization,  but  the  dream  of  a  northwest 
passage  is  still  a  potent  spell. 

A  Portuguese  sailor  was  the  first  to  circumnavigate  the 
globe,  and  left  his  name  stamped  forever  upon  the  1521. 
geography  of  the  earth,  and  emblazoned  in  the  constellations  of 
the  skies.*  The  gallant  Drake,  an  Englishman,  pillaged  the 
,  Spanish  settlements  of  the  Pacific,  explored  the  northwest 
coast  of  America  as  far  as  Oregon,  and  followed  in  ists. 
Magellan's  wake  around  the  world. 

From  early  in  the  century  the  maritime  nations  of  Europe 
pursued  the  whale  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  and  fished  for 
cod  on  the  banks  of  Newfoundland.  The  latter  industry 
became  of  gi'eat  importance,  to  supply  the  demand  for  fish,  of 
Roman   Catholic   countries.      In   1578,  four  hundred  vessels 

*  Magellan's  Straits  and  the  Magellanic  Clouds. 


46 


HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 


gathered  the  harvest  of  the  sea  upon  those  fertile  banks.  One 
hundred  and  fifty  of  these  were  French,  but  the  English,  we 
read  in  contemporary  records,  "were  commonly  lords  in  the 
harbours."  A  profitable  trade  in  peltry  with  the  natives  along 
the  seaboard  and  far  up  the  St.  Lawrence,  had  also  sprung  up. 
Codfish  and  whale  oil,  beaver-skins  and  walrus-tusks  proved 
treasures  scarce  less  valuable  than  the  gold  and  silver  that  the 
Spaniards  wrung,  by  the  unrequited  toil  of  the  conquered 
inhabitants,  from  the  mines  of  Mexico  and  Peru. 

In  1583,  Sir  Humphrey 
Gilbert,  half-brother  of 
Sir  Walter  Ealeigh,  re- 
asserted England's  claim, 
by  right  of  discovery,  to 
Newfoundland,  by  tak- 
ing possession  of  the 
island,  with  feudal  cere- 
mony, in  the  name  of 
Queen  Elizabeth.  The 
crews  became  insubor- 
dinate, and  went  gold- 
hunting  and  pillaging  the 
Spanish  and  Portuguese 
SIR  HUMPHREY  GILBERT.  sliips  lu  the  neighbouring 

waters  ;  and  Gilbert's  colonization  scheme  was  abandoned.  On 
its  return,  the  little  fleet  was  shattered  by  a  tempest.  The 
pious  admiral,  in  the  tiny  pinnace,  *'  Squirrel,"  of  only  ten 
tons  burden,  foundered  in  mid-ocean.  Before  night  fell,  as  he 
sat  in  the  stern  of  the  doomed  vessel,  with  the  Bible  in  his 
hand,  he  called  aloud  to  the  crew  of  his  consort,  the  "  Hind," 
"  Fear  not,  comrades  ;  heaven  is  as  near  by  sea  as  by  land." 

Undeterred  by  the  fate  of  his  gallant  kinsman.  Sir  Walter 
Ealeigh,  the  flower  of  Queen  Elizabeth's  court  and  friend  of 
1585.  Edmund  Spenser,  planted  the  first  English  coloiij  in 
America — named,  in  honour  of  the  maiden  queen,  Virginia  —  on 
Koanoke  Island,  off  the  coast  of  North  Carolina.  The  colony 
consisted  of  one  hundred  and  eight  persons,  among  whom  were 


EARLY  COLONIZATION. 


47 


several  of  gentle  blood  and  scholarly 
training.  But  disaster,  imprudence, 
and  conflicts  with  the  natives  led,  within 
a  year,  to  the  abandonment  of  the 
country.  Nevertheless,  the  glowing 
account  given  of  its  stately  forests, 
its  remarkable  productions — the  escu- 
lent potato,  the  prolific  maize,  the 
soothing  tobacco — and  the  rumours 
of  its  mineral  wealth,  awakened  a 
deep  interest  in  Great  Britain.  raleigh. 

The  following  year,  another  colony  was  sent  out,  but  it  also 
was  overtaken  by  disaster.  "  If  America  had  no  Eng-  isst. 
lish  town,  it  soon  had  English  graves."  But  Life  went  hand 
in  hand  with  Death,  and  the  birth  of  Virginia  Dare,  the  first- 
born of  English  children  in  the  New  World,  seemed  an  omen 
of  good  for  the  future  of  the  colony.  The  threatened  Spanish 
invasion  of  the  mother  country,  however,  absorbed  every 
energy  of  the  nation,  and  for  three  years  no  succour  could  be 
sent  the  infant  colony.  At  the  end  of  that  thne,  the  island  was 
found  deserted,  the  houses  in  ruins,  and  human  bones  1590. 
strewed  the  neighbouring  fields. 

Falling  under  royal  censure,  bankrupt  in  fortune,*  and 
broken  in  health,  Raleigh  languished  for  thirteen  years  in 
prison,  solacing  his  solitude  by  writing  his  eloquent  "  History 
of  the  World."  Released,  but  not  pardoned,  he  sought  to 
retrieve  his  credit  and  fortunes  by  the  search  for  a  fabled  city 
of  gold  on  the  banks  of  the  Orinoco,  amid  the  tropical  forests 
of  Guiana.  Defeated  by  the  Spaniards,  his  eldest  son  slain, 
his  vessels  wrecked,  his  body  smitten  with  palsy,  Raleigh 
returned  a  heart-broken  man  to  his  native  country,  which  he 
had  impoverished  himself  to  serve.  The  unjust  sentence 
which  had  slumbered  fifteen  years  was  revived,  and  the  heroic 
veteran  perished  on  the  scaffold,  a  memorable  example  of  the 


"  He  had  expended  two  hundred  thousand  dollars  of  his  private  fortune,  an 
immense  sum  in  those  days,  in  this  enterprise. 


48  HISTORY  or  C Ay  AD  A. 

ingratitude  of  kings,  1618.  His  fair  fame  has  been  vindicated 
by  time,  and  his  name  is  commemorated  by  the  city  of 
Ealeigh,  the  capital  of  North  Carolina. 

English  expeditions  now  became  frequent.  In  1602,  aban- 
doning the  southern  route  previously  followed  by  way  of  the 
Canaries  and  Azores,  Bartholomew  Gosnold,  in  a  small  bark, 
sailed  due  west  boldly  across  the  Atlantic.  He  reached  Massa- 
chusetts Bay,  and  rounding  Cape  Cod,  built  a  fort  and  began  a 
settlement  on  an  island  in  Buzzard's  Bay,  which,  however,  was 
soon  forsaken.  In  1603  and  1605,  Martin  Pring  and  George 
Weymouth  opened  a  traffic  with  the  natives  of  what  is  now 
New  England,  Weymouth  perfidiously  kidnapping  several  of 
the  inhabitants. 

In  1609,  Henry  Hudson,  an  English  navigator  in  the  employ 
of  the  Dutch  East  India  Company,  in  a 
small  vessel,  the  "Half  Moon,"  discovered, 
and  explored  as  far  as  the  site  of  Troy, 
the  river  to  which  he  gave  his  name. 
The  following  year,  seeking  a  northwest 
passage  to  China,  he  penetrated  the 
depths  of  Hudson's  Bay,  and  wintered 
amid  its  icy  regions.  In  the  spring,  with 
his  son  and  seven  others,  he  was  turned 
adrift  by  a  mutinous  crew  and  never  heard 
of  again.  The  noble  bay  which  became  his  grave  perpetuates 
his  memory. 

We  now  return  to  the  narrative  of  early  French  colonization. 
The  very  year  that  Henry  IV.,  by  the  edict  of  Nantes,  gave  ., 
religious  toleration  to  his  Protestant  sulyects,  he  granted  to  the 
Marquis  de  la  Roche  a  commission,  as  Viceroy  of  New  France 
— a  designation  which  included  the  whole  noi*them  part  of  the 
continent.  That  nobleman  was  promised  a  monopoly  of  trade, 
and  received  a  profusion  of  empty  titles  and  feudal  privileges. 
He  fitted  out  an  expedition  strangely  inadequate  to  the  task  of 
colonizing  the  vast  territory  assigned  to  hinj.  He  ransacked 
the  prisons  for  pioneers  of  Christianity  and  civilization  in  the 
New  World.    The  vessel  in  which  they  sailed  was  so  small,  that 


HENRY    UUDSOX. 


EARLY  COLONIZATION.  49 

the  crew,  leaning  over  her  sides,  could  wash  their  hands  in  the 
sea.  De  la  Roche  landed  his  forty  convicts  on  the  desolate 
sand-dunes  of  Sal)le  Island,  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles 
off  the  rocky  coast  of  Nova  Scotia,  apparently  fearing  that 
they  would  desert  as  soon  as  they  reached  the  main-land,  and 
sailed  away  to  select  a  site  for  his  colony.  But  a  western  gale 
drove  his  frail  vessel  back  to  France.  Here  he  came  under 
the  power  of  enemies,  and  was  thrown  into  prison.  For  five 
years  the  wretched  convicts  were  abandoned  to  their  fate. 
They  subsisted  on  fish  and  on  wild  cattle,  the  progeny  of  those 
left  liy  De  Lery  eighty  years  before.  They  clothed  themselves 
in  the  skins  of  wild  beasts,  and  obtained  shelter  in  a  cabin, 
built  out  of  a  wreck.  Their  savage  natures  found  vent  in 
violence  and  murder.  When  a  vessel  was  sent  for  their 
release,  only  twelve  remained  alive.  In  shaggy  attire  and 
unkempt  hair  and  beards — "rough  with  the  salt  of  the  sea, 
and  brown  with  the  brand  of  the  sun"  —  they  were  brought 
before  the  generous-hearted  king,  and  received  a  liberal  bounty 
from  his  hands.  The  marquis  was  utterly  ruined,  and  soon 
after,  died  of  chagrin,  on  account  of  his  broken  fortunes. 

Meanwhile  the  forfeited  patent  of  De  la  Eoche  was  granted 
to  Pontgrave,  a  merchant  of  St.  Malo,  and  Chauvin,  a  1599. 
captain  of  the  marine,  who  undertook  to  plant  a  colony  of  five 
hundred  persons  in  Canada.  Their  chief  object,  however,  was 
the  fur  trade.  In  order  to  prosecute  this  the  more  successfully, 
they  established  a  trading-post  at  Tadousac,  at  the  entrance  to 
the  gloomy  gorge  of  the  Saguenay.  Of  the  sixteen  men  left 
to  gather  the  rich  harvest  of  furs,  before  winter  was  over  sev- 
eral had  died,  and  the  rest  were  dependent  for  food  on  the 
charity  of  the  Indians.  After  two  more  imsuccessful  attempts 
at  colonization,  Chauvin  died,  and  the  patent  again  lapsed. 

Now  appears  upon  the  scene  one  of  the  most  remarkable  of 
the  many  able  men  who  have  aided  in  moulding  the  fortunes 
and  destiny  of  Canada.  Samuel  de  Champlain,  a  gentleman  of 
Saintonge,  was  born  in  1567,  at  Brouage,  a  small  seaport  in 
the  Bay  of  Biscay.  From  youth  he  was  familiar  with  the  sea, 
and  had  reached  the  position  of  captain  of  the  royal  marine. 
7 


50 


HISTORY   OF  CAXADA. 


He  had  also  served  as  a  soldier,  and  fought  durmg  the  wars  of 
the  League,  under  Hemy  of  Navarre.     He  was  a  hero  of  the 


6AMU£1.  CHAMPLAd, 

mediaeval  type  of  chivalric  courage,  fond  of  romantic  enter- 
prise, and  inspired  hy  religious  enthusiasm,  "  the  zeal  of  the 
missionary  tempered  the  fire  of  the  soldier."  He  observed 
acutely  and  described  vividly  the  wonders  of  the  new  countries 
that  he  visited.*  On  the  restoration  of  peace,  weary  of  dally- 
ing at  court,  he  sought  adventure  in  a  voyage  to  the  West  Indies 
and  Mexico.  Aymar  de  Chastes,  Governor  of  Dieppe,  and 
commander  of  the  Order  of  St.  John,  received  authority  from 
the  Kmg  to  plant  the  cross  and  the  Jleur  de  lis  in  the  New 
1603.  World,  and  to  extend  the  religion  and  commerce  of  France 
among  its  savage  tribes.     Discerning  the  commanding  qualities 


*  His  journal,  with  rude  drawings  of  the  strange  animals  and  scenes  that  he 
beheld,  is  still  extant  in  MS. 


EARLY  COLONIZATION. 


51 


of  Champlain,  De  Cliastes  commissioned  him  to  join  Pontgrave 
in  this  pious  enterprise.  Two  small  barks,  of  twelve  and 
fifteen  tons  burden,  bore  the  adventurers  across  the  stormy 
deep.  Gliding  up  the  vast  and  solitary  St.  Lawrence,  past  the 
deserted  post  of  Tadousac,  past  the  tenantless  rock  of  Quebec, 
and  the  ruined  fort  of  Cape  Rouge,  they  reached  the  Island  of 
Montreal  and  the  rapids  of  St.  Louis.  But  not  a  vestige  of 
the  Indian  towns  of  Stadacona  or  Hochelaga,  nor  of  their 
friendly  population,  described  by  Cartier  sixty-eight  j^ears  be- 
fore, remained.  Returning  to  France  with  a  cargo  of  furs,  they 
found  that  De  Chastes, 
the  generous  patron 
of  the  enterprise,  was 
dead. 

A  successor  in  the 
work  of  colonization 
was  soon  found. 
Pierre  du  Guast,  Sieur 
de  Monts,  a  Calvinist 
nobleman,  obtained  a 
patent  of  the  vice 
royalty  of  La  Cadio 
or  Acadie,*  a  terri- 
tory described  as  ex- 
tending from  the  for- 
tieth to  the  forty- 
sixth  degree  of  north 
latitude,  from  the  par- 
allel of  Philadelphi 
to  that  of  Louisburg. 
Protestantism  was  to 
be  freely  tolerated, 
but  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic religion  alone  might 
be  taught  to   the  na-  sieur  de  monts. 

*  The  name  is  said  to  be  derived  from  the  Indian  Aquoddie,  i.e.,  a  fish  like  a 
pollock. 


52  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

1604-  tives.  The  new  colony  was  composed  of  strangely 
incongruous  materials.  In  the  crowded  ships  were  assembled 
some  of  the  best  blood,  and  some  of  the  worst  criminals  of 
France, — the  Baron  de  Poutrincourt,  the  Sieur  de  Monts, 
Champlain,  soldiers,  artisans  and  convicts.  Catholic  priest 
and  Calvinist  minister  carried  their  polemics,  says  Champlain, 
from  words  to  blows.  Entering  a  harbour  on  the  southern 
shore  of  Nova  Scotia,  they  found  a  fur-trading  vessel.  This 
De  ^lonts  forthwith  confiscated  for  invasion  of  his  monopoly, 
and  commemorated  the  circumstance  by  giving  the  name  of  the 
owner  to  the  harbour,  Rossignol,  now  Liverpool.  Rounding 
Cape  Sable,  De  jMonts  entered  the  narrow  harbour  of  St. 
ISIary's.  Here  M.  Aubry,  a  young  priest  from  Paris,  explor- 
ing through  the  woods,  disappeared.  After  diligent  search,  he 
was  given  up  as  dead,  not  without  suspicion  of  having  met  with 
foul  play  from  the  Calvinist  minister,  with  whom  he  had  been 
engaged  in  much  vigorous  controversy.  After  sixteen  days 
wandering,  the  missing  priest  was  discovered  by  a  fishing  party, 
nearly  famished  with  hunger.  The  reputation  of  his  clerical 
antagonist  was  thereby  re-established. 

Sailing  up  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  the  voyagers  entered  a  narrow 
inlet,  which  exjDanded  into  a  noble  land-locked  basin.  Delighted 
with  the  beauty  of  the  scene,  Poutrincourt  asked  a  grant  of 
the  place,  as  the  site  for  a  settlement.  This  was  gi-anted,  and 
the  Baron  gave  to  his  new  domain  the  name,  destined  to  be- 
come historical,  of  Port  Royal. 

De  Monts  and  Champlain  explored,  to  its  extremity,  the  Bay 
of  Fundy,  named  Bale  Francaise,  at  times  imperilled  by  its 
dense  fogs  and  swirling  tides.  On  the  24th  of  June,  they  en- 
tered a  spacious  harbour  which,  in  honour  of  the  day,  they 
named  St.  John,  a  designation  which  it  still  bears.  A  sandy 
island  in  a  river,  which  he  named  the  St.  Croix,  now  the 
boundary  between  New  Brunswick  and  Maine,  was  selected  by 
De  IMonts  as  the  site  of  a  fort  and  settlement.  It  was  an  un- 
fortunate choice.  The  island,  though  easy  of  defence,  was 
barren,  bleak,  and  desolate  ;  and  became  the  scene  of  a  dread- 
ful tragedy.     The  whole  colony,  however,  set  to  work, —  gen- 


EARL  T  ■  COL  OXIZATION.  53 

tlemen,  soldiers,  sailors,  and  convicts.  Before  winter  a  spa- 
cious quadrangle  was  surrounded  by  barracks,  storehouses, 
workshops,  lodgings,  chapel,  and  Governor's  house,  the  whole 
surrounded  by  a  palisade. 

Poutrincourt  now  returned  to  France  for  recruits  for  his 
domain  of  Port  Koyal.  From  the  Spanish  settlement  of  St. 
Augustine  to  the  arctic  waste,  from  the  surging  tides  of  the 
Atlantic  to  the  waters  of  the  Pacific,  the  only  habitation  of 
civilized  man,  was  this  outpost  of  Christendom  on  the  edge 
of  the  boundless  and  savage  wilderness.  The  winter  set  in 
early,  and  the  cold  was  intense.  The  bleak  winds  howled 
around  the  wooden  houses,  drifting  the  snow  through  their 
crevices.  Even  the  wine  froze  in  the  casks.  As  the  hap- 
less Frenchmen  shivered  over  their  scanty  fires,  they  fell  into 
deepest  dejection,  and  became  the  easy  prey  of  disease.  Of 
the  seventy-nine  exiles,  thirty-five,  before  the  spring,  fell  vic- 
tims to  the  loathsome  scurvy,  and  many  others  were  brought 
to  the  very  door  of  death.  Amid  such  sufierings  were  laid 
the  foundations  of  New  France.  One  heart,  hoAvever,  struggled 
against  despair.  By  his  indomitable  spirit,  Champlain  sustained 
the  courage  of  the  wi-etched  colonists. 

In  the  spring,  Pontgrave  arrived  Avith  succours  from  France, 
and  was  hailed  as  bringing  deliverance  from  death.  De  iocs. 
Monts  and  Champlain  explored  the  coast  of  Maine  and  INIassa- 
chusetts,  but  found  no  place  of  settlement  so  eligible  as  the 
land-locked  harbour  of  Port  Royal.  They  therefore  removed 
thither,  carrying  even  the  timljers  of  the  buildings  for  the  con- 
struction of  a  new  fort.  Here  the  little  colony  braved  the 
rigours'  of  another  winter,  while  De  Monts  returned  to  France 
to  defend  his  commercial  prerogatives  against  the  machinations 
of  jealous  rivals. 

With  a  company  of  artisans  and  labourers,  Poutrincourt  re- 
enforced  the  colony  the  following  spring.  With  him  came  looe. 
a  man  of  considerable  note,  as  the  future  historian  of  New 
France  —  a  "briefless  barrister"  and  poet  of  some  skill,  Marc 
Lescarbot.  The  new  comers  Avere  hailed  Avith  joy  by  the  col- 
onists who  were  again  reduced  to  extremities.     While  Cham- 


54  HISTORY  OF  CAXADA. 

plain  explored  the  Atlantic  seaboard  for  a  milder  place  of 
settlement,  Lescarbot  remained  in  charge  of  the  fort.  He  in- 
fused his  own  energy  into  his  subordinates,  and  spent  the  sum- 
mer in  busy  industry  ;  planting,  tilling,  building,  and,  with  all, 
finding  time  to  write  his  rhymes.  Champlain's  return  was  wel- 
comed by  a  theatrical  masque,  Neptune  and  his  Tritons  greeting 
them  in  verses  composed  for  the  occasion  by  the  ingenious  poet. 
The  dreary  winter  was  enlivened  by  the  establishment  of  the 
"Order  of  the  Good  Time,"  the  duties  of  which  were,  with 
the  aid  of  Indian  allies,  to  prepare  good  cheer  for  the  daily 
1607.  banquet.  In  the  spring  came  a  vessel  from  France,  bear- 
ing; the  tidinsrs  of  the  revocation  of  the  charter,  and  orders  to 
abandon  the  settlement.  With  heavy  hearts  these  pioneers  of 
empire  in  the  New  World,  forsook  the  little  fort  and  clearing, 
the  pleasant  bay,  and  engirdling  hills  of  Port  Eoj^al ;  and  took 
leave  of  the  friendly  Indians,  from  whom  they  had  received  no 
small  kindness. 

Undeterred  by  this  disaster,  Baron  Poutrincourt  returned  to 
1610.  Port  Royal  three  years  after,  the  King  having  confirmed 
the  patent  granted  by  De  Monts.  He  found  the  buildings  un- 
injured, and  even  the  furniture  in  the  deserted  chambers  un- 
touched. The  Indians  welcomed  the  return  of  their  former 
friends  witli  delight.  The  aged  chief,  Membertou,  a  patriarch 
of  over  a  hundred  years,  with  many  of  his  tribe,  consented  to 
receive  Christian  baptism  from  the  hands  of  Father  La  Fleche, 
a  zealous  priest  who  accompanied  the  colonists.  This  rite  was 
performed  with  the  utmost  pomp,  accompanied  by  the  chanting 
of  the  Te  Deumy  and  the  roar  of  cannon,  the  savage  neophytes 
receiving  the  names  of  the  King,  the  Queen,  the  Dauphin,  the 
Pope,  and  of  members  of  princely  or  noble  houses.  Biencourt, 
the  son  of  Baron  Poutrincourt,  was  dispatched  to  Paris  with 
the  baptismal  registry  of  the  new  proselytes,  as  a  proof  that 
the  spiritual  interests  of  the  natives  had  not  been  neglected,  as 
alleged  by  the  enemies  of  the  Baron. 

On  reaching  France,  Biencourt  found  that  Henry  IV.,  the 
lil)eral-minded  patron  of  the  colony,  had  been  treacherously 
assassinated  by  the  fanatical  Ravaillac,  and  that  Jesuit  influence 


EARLY  COLONIZATION.  55 

was  in  the  ascendant  at  the  court.  A  zeal  for  the  conversion 
of  the  Indians  became  a  fashion  among  the  great  ladies  of  the 
time.  Prominent  among  these,  was  INIadame  de  Guercheville, 
who  purchased,  in  the  interests  of  the  Jesuits,  a  controlling 
share  in  the  colony,  and  despatched  thither  Fathers  Biard  and 
Masse,  the  first  members  of  this  energetic  and  aggressive  or- 
der who  visited  New  France.  Dissension  soon  broke  out  be- 
tM^een  the  temporal  and  spiritual  powers  at  Port  Eoyal.  The 
Jesuits  excommunicated  the  civil  rulers,  and  refused,  for 
months,  to  celel^rate  mass  or  perform  other  functions  of  their 
office.  The  religious  strifes  of  the  Old  World  were  renewed 
in  the  Acadian  wilderness.  Famine  and  anarchy  succeeded  to 
the  thrift  and  concord  of  the  settlement  of  Champlain  and  Les- 
carbot. 

At  length  the  Jesuits  abandoned  Port  Eoyal,  and,  under  au- 
thority of  a  royal  patent,  with  a  number  of  colonists,  at-  leis. 
tempted  to  plant  a  settlement  on  the  island  of  Mount  Desert,  in 
the  picturesque  inlet  on  the  coast  of  Maine,  which  still  bears  the 
name  of  Frenchman's  Bay.  While  they  were  ploughing  and 
building,  a  strange  vessel,  flying  the  flag  of  Great  Britain,  ap- 
peared in  the  offing.  The  French  hastened  on  board  their 
vessel,  and  made  an  inefiectual  resistance.  The  English  broad- 
sides soon  reduced  it  to  a  WTcck,  and  strewed  its  gory  deck 
with  the  dying  and  the  dead,  among  whom  w^as  the  Jesuit,  Du 
Thet.  Argall,  the  piratical  English  adventurer  from  the  new 
colony  of  Virginia,  landed  and  pillaged  the  French  settlement, 
and  stole  their  commission  of  colonization  from  the  King. 
Fifteen  of  their  prisoners  he  inhumanely  turned  adrift  in  an 
open  boat.  They  were,  however,  providentially  rescued,  and 
found  their  way  to  France.  The  rest  of  the  Frenchmen,  Argall 
conveyed  to  Virginia,  where  the  Governor  threatened  to  have 
them  executed  for  piratical  invasion  of  British  territory,  and 
was  only  deterred  by  Argall's  production  of  the  stolen  commis- 
sion. This  w^as  the  first  outbreak  of  the  long  strife  of  one 
hundred  and  fifty  years,  between  the  English  and  the  French, 
for  the  possession  of  the  broad  continent.  Each  country, 
though  occupying  only  a  few  acres  of  an  almost  boundless  do- 


56  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

main,  was  insanely  jealous  of  the  possession  of  a  single  foot  of 
it  by  the  other. 

The  following  year,  Argall  again  set  forth  on  a  career  of  pillage 
1614.  and  havoc.  He  completed  the  destruction  of  the  French 
settlements  at  Mount  Desert  and  St.  Croix.  The  Jesuit,  Biard, 
it  is  said,  to  gratify  his  ancient  grudge  against  his  countryman, 
Biencourt,  betrayed  the  existence  of  the  French  colony  of  Port 
Royal.  Sweeping  down  upon  the  little  settlement,  Argall 
plundered  it,  even  to  the  locks  upon  the  doors,  and  razed  the 
fort  to  the  very  foundation.  Poutrincourt  abandoned  the  un- 
happy colony  in  despair,  and  the  following  year,  fell  fighting, 
sword  in  hand,  at  the  siege  of  Mery,  in  his.  native  land. 


CHAMPLAIN'S  ADMINISTRATION.  57 


CHAPTER  V. 

CHAMPLAIN'S  ADMINISTRATION. 

Champlain  Founds  Quebec,  1608  —  Sufferings  of  the  Colony  —  Iroquois  War 
—  Place  Royal  (Montreal)  —  The  Imxiostor,  Vignan  —  Champlain  Discovers 
Lakes  Huron,  Simcoe,  and  Ontario  —  Seneca  War  —  The  Do  Caens  —  The 
Company  of  the  Hundred  Associates  Organized,  1627—  Sir  William  Alexan- 
der Obtains  Grant  of  Acadia  —  The  Knights-Baronets  of  Nova  Scotia  — 
Kirk's  Conquest  of  Quebec,  1629  —  Quebec  Restored  by  the  Treaty  of  St. 
Germain-en-Laye,  1632  —  The  La  Tours  in  Acadia  —  Death  of  Champlain, 
1635  —  His  Character. 

BAFFLED  in  his  efforts  to  plant  a  colony  in  Acadia,  De 
Monts  resolved  to  attempt  a  settlement  on  the  St.  Law- 
rence. By  tracing  its  mighty  stream,  it  was  thought  that  a 
nearer  way  to  China  might  be  discovered;  and  that  a  single, 
well-placed  fort  would  command  the  fur  trade  of  the  vast  in- 
terior, while  faithful  missionaries  might  preach  to  countless 
savage  tribes,  the  gospel  of  Mary  and  her  Divine  Son.  Ob- 
taining, for  a  year,  a  renewal  of  his  monopoly,  De  Monts  de- 
spatched Pontgrave  and  Champlain  to  the  St.  Lawrence,  bearing 
the  fortunes  of  Canada  in  their  frail  vessels.  At  Tadousac,  a 
choleric  Basque  captain  defied  De  Monts'  claim  to  a  monopoly 
of  the  fur  trade,  and  fired  on  Pontgrave's  ship,  killing  one  man 
and  wounding  three  others. 

On  the  3d  of  July,  Champlain  reached  the  narrows  of  the  river, 
where  frown  the  craggy  heights  of  Quebec.  Here,  be-  leos. 
neath  the  tall  cliff  of  Cape  Diamond,  he  laid  the  foundations  of 
one  of  the  most  famous  cities  of  the  New  World.*  A  wooden 
fort  was  erected,  on  the  site  of  the  present  market-place  of  the 
lower  town,  and  was  surrounded  by  a  palisade,  loop-holed  for 

*  The  name  Quebec,  Champlain  positively  asserts,  was  the  Indian  designation 
of  the  narrows  of  the  St.  Lawrence  at  this  point,  the  word  signifying  a  strait. 

Canada  is  the  Indian  word  for  a  collection  of  huts,  and  enters  into  the  com- 
position of  several  native  names. 


58  BISTORT  OF  CANADA. 

musketry.  The  whole  was  enclosed  by  a  moat,  and  three 
small  cannon  guarded  the  river-front.  The  colonists  were  soon 
comfortably  housed,  and  land  was  cleared  for  tillage.  The 
firm  discipline  maintained  by  Champlain,  provoked  a  conspiracy 
for  his  murder.  It  was  discovered,  the  ring-leader  was  hanged, 
and  his  fellow-conspirators  shipped  in  chains  to  France.  Cham- 
plain  was  left  with  twenty-eight  men  to  hold  a  continent.  His 
nearest  civilized  neighbours  were  the  few  English  colonists  at 
Jamestown,  Virginia.  The  long  and  cruel  winter  was  a  season 
of  tragical  disaster  and  suffering.  Before  spring,  of  that  little 
company,  only  eight  remained  alive.  The  rest  had  all  miser- 
1609.  ably  perished  by  the  loathsome  scurvy.  The  timely 
arrival  of  succours  from  France  saved  the  little  colony  from 
extinction. 

The  neighbouring  Algonquins  were  anxious  to  secure,  as  an 
ally,  the  pale-faced  chief,  who  was  able,  like  the  thunder-god, 
to  destroy  his  enemy  at  a  distance,  by  a  flash  of  flame.  Eager 
to  explore  the  interior,  Champlain  yielded  to  their  solicitations 
to  join  a  war-party  in  an  attack  upon  their  hereditary  foes,  the 
Iroquois,  who  occupied  the  lake  region  of  central  New  York. 
After  wild  war-dances,  and  a  gluttonous  feast,  the  forest  ex- 
pedition set  forth,  accompanied  by  Champlain  and  eleven  white 
men.  A  hundred  canoes,  paddled  by  sinewy  arms,  glided  up 
the  St.  Lawrence,  crossed  Lake  St.  Peter,  and  ascended  the  tor- 
tuous current  of  the  Richelieu.  Here,  three-fourths  of  the  war- 
party,  after  the  fickle  manner  of  the  natives,  returned,  and  a  tiny 
fleet  of  twenty-four  canoes,  bearing  sixty  Indian  warriors  and 
three  white  men,  held  on  its  way.  They  soon  glided  forth  on 
the  beautiful  lake,  to  which  Champlain  has  given  his  name  ;  the 
shores  of  which  were  so  often  to  re-echo  the  strife  of  savage  or 
civilized  warfare.  Amid  the  summer  loveliness  of  Lake  St. 
Sacrament,  long  after  memorable  as  Lake  George,  they  came 
upon  the  foe.  Before  the  death-dealing  fire  of  the  European 
weapons,  the  savages  fled,  howling  with  dismay.  In  spite  of 
his  vehement  remonstrance,  Champlain  was  compelled  to  wit- 
ness the  torture  of  twelve  of  the  enemy,  captured  by  the  Al- 
gonquins.    This  was  an  unfortunate  expedition,  as  the  Iroquois 


CIIAMPLAIX'S  ADMLXISTRATIOX.  59 

became,  for  one  hundred  and  fifty  years,  the  imphicublc  foes  of 
the  French,  and  terribly  avenged,  by  many  a  murder  and  am- 
buscade, the  death  of  every  Indian  slain  in  this  battle.  The 
following  spring  they  entrenched  themselves  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Richelieu,  and  were  routed  only  after  a  fierce  struggle,  in 
which  Champlain  himself  received  an  arrow  in  his  neck. 

After  the  assassination,  in  this  year,  of  Henry  IV.,  the  patron 
of  De  jNIonts,  the  latter  was  obliged  to  admit  private  ad-  leio. 
venturers  to  share  the  profits  of  the  fur  trade,  oK  condition  of 
their  promoting  his  schemes  of  colonization.  The  powerful 
Prince  of  Conde,  Admiral  INIontmorency,  and  the  Duke  of 
Ventadour,  became  successively  Viceroys  of  Canada ;  but  the 
valour  and  fidelity  and  zeal  of  Champlain  commanded  the 
confidence  of  them  all.  Twice,  in  successive  j^ears,  he  visited 
the  court  of  France  in  the  interests  of  the  colony,  and  through 
successive  changes  of  patrons,  he  continued  to  administer  its 
afiairs  as  their  agent,  yet  bearing  the  commission  of  the  new 
King,  Louis  XIII.  With  the  prescience  of  a  founder  of  em- 
pire, he  selected  the  Island  of  Montreal  as  the  site  of  a  leii. 
fort,  protecting  the  fur  trade,  and  commanding  the  two  great 
vrater-ways  of  the  country,  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Ottawa. 
The  commercial  prosperity  of  the  great  city  which  now  covers 
so  large  a  portion  of  the  island,  is  an  ample  vindication  of  his 
choice.  He  erected  storehouses  at  Lachine,  which  he  named 
Sault  St.  Louis,  and  gave  the  designation  it  still  bears  to  St. 
Helen's  Island,  opposite  the  city,  after  the  name  of  his  youthful 
wife,  whom  he  had  just  espoused. 

In  order  to  verify  the  story  of  a  coasting  adventurer,  as  to 
the  existence  of  a  great  northern  sea,  Avhich  would  prob-  1612. 
ably  give  access  to  China  and  India,  Champlain,  with  a  native^ 
interpreter,  and  a  few  companions,  penetrated  up  the  pictur- 
esque and  rapid  Ottawa,  over  rugged  portages,  and  through 
tangled  forests,  past  the  boiling  Chaudiere,  and  the  stately  cliff 
now  the  site  of  the  capital  of  Canada,  as  far  as  the  distant  Isle 
of  Allumettes,  a  region  which  is  to  this  day  a  solitude.  When 
even  the  Indians  refused  to  escort  him  further  on  his  perilous 
way,  and  he  discovered  the  falsehood  of  his  guide,  having  first 


60  mSTORT   OF  CANADA. 

planted  the  emblems  of  the  faith  in  this  primeval  wilderness, 
he  retm-ned,  disappointed  but  undaunted,  to  Quebec,  and  thence 
to  France,  to  urge  the  fortunes  of  the  colony. 

With  a  desire  for  gain,  and  for  extending  the  dominions  of 
France  in  the  New  World,  was  blended  also,  in  the  purposes  of 
successive  Viceroys  of  the  colony,  a  zeal  for  the  conversion  of 
the  savages  to  the  Catholic  faith.  In  this  purpose  they  were 
1615.  seconded  by  the  piety  of  Champlain.  On  his  return  to 
Canada,  he  brought,  with  the  new  company  of  colonists,  four 
Eecollet  friars,  the  first  of  an  heroic  band  of  missionaries,  who 
toiled  amid  the  wilderness  to  win  the  wandering  pagans  to  the 
doctrines  of  the  Cross.  Clad  in  coarse  serge  garments,  with 
girdles  of  knotted  cord,  and  sandals  of  wood,  the  "apostolic 
mendicants"  kneeled  on  the  bare  earth,  and,  amid  salvos  of 
cannon  from  the  fort  and  shij?,  celebrated  the  first  mass  ever 
said  in  Canada.  Scorning  the  pleasures  of  civilized  life,  they 
cheerfully  espoused  privations  and  sufierings,  for  the  glory  of 
God  and  the  spiritual  welfare  of  the  native  tribes. 

On  his  arrival  at  Montreal,  Champlain  found  a  large  council 
of  Algonquin  and  Huron  Indians,  discussing  the  project  of  an 
attack  upon  the  Iroquois.  Desirous  of  cementing  an  alliance 
with  these  friendly  tribes,  he  agreed  to  join  the  expedition,  the 
savages  undertaking  to  raise  a  force  of  tAventy-five  hundred 
warriors  for  the  purpose.  While  Champlain  went  to  Quebec 
for  supplies,  his  Indian  allies,  not  waiting  his  return,  proceeded 
with  Father  Caron  and  twelve  Frenchmen,  to  the  place  of  ren- 
dezvous in  the  Huron  country.  Accompanied  by  a  small  party 
of  Indian  canoemen,  Champlain  followed  them.  Stemming 
the  rapid  current  of  the  Ottawa,  and  toiling  over  almost  count- 
less portages  ;  subsisting  on  wild  berries,  and  camping  on  the 
naked  rocks ;  crossing  Lake  Nipissing,  and  gliding  down  the 
rapids  of  the  French  Eiver,  he  gained,  at  last,  the  waters  of 
the  Georgian  Bay,  and  beheld,  stretching  to  the  west,  seemingly 
boundless  as  the  ocean,  the  blue  heaving  billows  of  Lake 
Huron,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  Mer  Douce,  —  the  Fresh- 
water Sea.  Coasting  down  its  rugged  eastern  shore,  and 
through  its  many  thousands  of  rocky  islands,  a  hundred  miles 


CHAMrLAIN'S  ADMINISTRATION. 


61 


or  more,  lie  reached  the  inlet  of  the  Matchedash  Bay,  where 
Penctanguishcne  now  stands.  This  region,  now  the  northern 
part  of  the  county  of  Simcoe,  contained  the  chief  settlements 
of  the  Huron  Indians,  a  nation  variously  estimated  at  from  ten 
to  thirty  thousand  souls,  dwelling  in  palisaded  towns,  wdth 
large  and  well-built  houses,  and  subsisting  by  agriculture  as 
well  as  by  the  chase.  Over  a  forest  trail,  Champlain  and  his 
companions  i^assed  to  the  appointed  place  of  gathering  of  the 
forest  trilies,  Cahiagua,  on  the  narrows  of  Lake  Couchiching, 
near  where  the  pretty  village  of  Orillia  now  stands.     Here  he 


W  -  -  r_^_ 


-=^-^ 


VIEW  NEAR  ORILLIA. 


was  met  by  Le  Caron,  the  Kecollet  friar ;  and  here,  in  the  soli- 
tude of  the  primeval  forest,  were  chanted  the  Te  Deum,  and 
offered  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass. 

At  Cahiagua,  a  war-party  of  two  thousand  plumed  and 
painted  braves  were  assembled,  and  several  days  were  spent  in 
feasting,  war-dances,  and  other  savage  pastimes.  At  length 
sailing,  with  several  hundred  canoes,  through  Lake  Simcoe  and 
up  the  Talbot  Eiver,  and  traversing  the  picturesque  Balsam, 
Sturgeon,  Pigeon,  and  Rice  lakes,  with  their  intervening  port- 
ages, they  glided  down  the  devious  windings  of  the  Otonabee 
and  Trent  rivers,  and  reached  the  beautiful  Bay  of  Quinte,  with 


62  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

its  columned  forests  and  verdure-clad,  gently* undulating  slopes, 
now  adorned  with  smiling  villages  and  cheerful  farms.     Emerg- 


VIEW  ON  LAKE  SIMCOE. 

ing  from  the  placid  bay,  the  Huron  fleet  entered  the  broad  and 
blue  Ontario,  dimpling  in  the  autumnal  sunlight.  To  this 
Champlain  gave  the  name,  which  it  long  retained,  of  Lac 
St.  Louis. 

Having  boldly  crossed  the  lake,  the  war-party  reached  the 
country  of  the  Iroquois.  Hiding  their  canoes  in  the  forest, 
they  pressed  onward  some  thirty  leagues,  to  the  Seneca  towns 
near  Lake  Canandaigua.  The  Iroquois,  attacked  in  the  corn- 
fields,—  for  it  was  the  time  of  the  maize  harvest, —  retired  to 
their  town,  which  was  defended  with  four  rows  of  palisades. 
On  the  inside,  galleries  were  constructed,  on  which  were  pre- 
pared magazines  of  stones  and  other  missiles,  and  a  supply  of 
water  to  extinguish  any  fire  that  might  be  kindled  beneath  the 
walls.  The  tumultuous  attack  of  the  Hurons  was  ineffective. 
Under  Champlain's  direction,  a  wooden  tower  was  constructed, 
after  the  manner  of  mediaeval  warfare,  and  dragged  forward  so 
as  to  overlook  the  walls.  Huge  shields  or  mantlets  were  also 
prepared  to  cover  the  persons  of  the  warriors  advancing  to  the 
attack,  while  from  the  top  of  the  tower  skilled  marksmen  raked 
the  galleries,  crowded  with  naked  Iroquois.     But  the  impetu- 


CHAMP  LAIN' S  ADMINISTRATION.  g3 

ous  zcfil  of  the  Hurons  brooked  no  restraint.  They  rushed 
tumultuously  against  the  walls,  and  were  soon  thrown  into  con- 
fusion, in  spite  of  the  efforts  of  Champlain,  who  w^as  himself 
seriously  wounded,  to  maintain  order.  Thus,  this  "forest 
paladin  "  sought  to  wage  war  in  the  heart  of  the  wilderness, 
after  the  manner  of  a  European  campaign.  After  an  misuccess- 
ful  attempt  to  fire  the  town,  the  Hurons  fell  back  on  their 
rudely  fortified  camp.  After  the  manner  of  their  tribe,  when 
bafiled  in  a  first  attempt,  they  could  not  be  induced  to  repeat 
the  attack,  but  resolved  to  retreat.  This  movement  was  con- 
ducted with  greater  skill  than  the  assault.  The  wounded  — 
among  whom  was  Champlain,  chafing  with  chagrin  and  pain  — 
were  bound  on  rude  litters  and  carried  in  the  centre,  while 
armed  warriors  formed  front,  rear,  and  flanking  guards, 

Champlain  had  been  promised  an  escort  down  the  St.  Law- 
rence to  Quebec,  but,  daunted  by  their  defeat,  the  Hurons 
refused  to  keep  their  engagement.  He  was,  therefore,  com- 
pelled to  return  with  his  savage  allies.  They  encamped  for 
thirty-eight  days  near  Mud  Lake,  northwest  of  Kingston, 
waiting  for  the  frost  to  bridge  the  rivers  and  oozy  marshes. 
For  four  days,  he  was  lost  in  the  woods  and  well-nigh  ex- 
hausted by  hunger,  cold,  and  fatigue.  For  nineteen  days,  he 
traversed  on  snow-shoes  the  wintry  forest,  beneath  a  crushing 
load,  through  what  are  now  the  counties  of  Hastings,  Peter- 
borough, and  Victoria  ;  and  on  Christmas  eve,  the  bafiled  war- 
j)arty  reached  Cahiagua.  Champlain  remained  four  months 
with  his  Huron  hosts,  sharing  in  their  councils,  their  feasts, 
and  their  hunts,  and  hearing  strange  tales  of  the  vast  lakes  and 
rivers  of  the  Far  West.  His  arrival  at  Quebec,  after  a  leie. 
year's  absence,  was  greeted  almost  as  a  resurrection  from  the 
dead. 

Champlain  now  devoted  himself  to  fostering  the  gro\\i:h  of 
the  infant  colony.  Quebec  was  as  yet  only  surrounded  by 
wooden  walls.  To  strengthen  its  defences,  the  energetic  Gov- 
ernor built  a  stone  fort  in  the  lower  town,  and  on  the  magnifi- 
cent heights  overlooking  the  broad  St.  LawTence,  one  of  the 
noblest  sites  in  the  world,  he  began  the  erection  of  the  Castle 


64  HISTORY   OF   CANADA. 

of  St.  Louis,  the  residence  of  successive  Governors  of  Canada 
down  to  1834,  when  it  was  destroyed  by  fire. 

The  associated  company  of  merchants  were  averse  to  colo- 
nization, and  were  anxious  only  to  prosecute  the  fur  trade,  and 
to  retain  the  monopoly  exclusively  in  their  own  hands.  Cham- 
plain  went  every  year  to  France  to  urge  the  interests  of  the 
colony.  His  patron,  the  Prince  of  Conde,  disgraced  and  im- 
prisoned for  his  share  in  the  political  disturbances  during  the 

1620.  minority  of  Louis  XIII. ,  sold  the  vice-royalty  of  New 
France  to  the  Duke  of  Montmorency,  for  the  sum  of  eleven 
thousand  crowns.  The  same  year,  Champlain  brought  out  his 
youthful  wife,  who  was  received  by  the  Indians  with  reverential 
homage,  as  a  being  of  superior  race.  Amid  the  rude  surround- 
ings of  her  exile,  during  the  four  years  she  remained,  the  lady 
devoted  herself  with  enthusiasm  to  the  religious  instruction  of 
the  Indian  children,  and  won  all  hearts  by  her  beauty,  her 
kindness,  and  her  piety.  The  impolicy  of  Champlain's  Indian 
w^ars  was  soon  manifested  by  the  first  of  those  Iroquois  inva- 
sions, which  so  often  afterwards  harassed  the  colony.  For  the 
present,  however,  the  terror  of  the  French  cannon  and  mus- 
ketry frustrated  the  threatened  attack. 

In  consequence  of  disputes  in  the  Trading  Company  of  New 
France,  and  its  neglect  to  furnish  supplies  for  the  colony,  its 

1621.  charter  was  suspended,  and  its  privileges  transferred  to 
the  Sieurs  De  Caen,  uncle  and  nephew,  zealous  Huguenots. 
The  elder  De  Caen  soon  arrived  at  Quebec,  and  attempted  to 
seize  the  vessels  of  the  old  company,  then  in  the  river.  Many 
resident  traders  left  the  country  in  disgust,  so  that,  although 
eighteen  emigrants  had  arrived,  the  population  was  reduced  to 
forty-eight  persons. 

Montmorency  soon  surrendered  his  vice-royalty  to  the  Duke 
1625.  de  Ventadour,  a  nobleman  who,  wearied*  of  the  follies 
of  the  court,  had  entered  a  monastic  order,  and  was  full  of  zeal 
for  the  extension  of  the  Roman  Catholic  faith  in  the  New 
World.  He  suppressed  the  Protestant  worship  in  De  Caen's 
ships,  especially  the  singing  of  psalms,  which  seems  to  have 
been  particularly  obnoxious,  and  sent  out  three  Jesuit  Fathers, 


CnAMPLAIX'S  ADMINISTRATION.  65 

P^res  Breljeuf,  and  Lalemant,  who  were  afterwards  martyred  by 
the  Iroquois,  and  Le  Masse,  who  had  survived  the  disasters  of 
Port  Eoyal.  The  Jesuits,  coldly  repulsed  by  De  Caen,  were 
hospitably  received  by  the  Recollets,  in  their  convent  on  the 
St.  Charles,  till  they  had  built  one  of  their  own. 

Amid  the  religious  and  commercial  rivalries  by  which  it  was 
distracted,  the  infant  colony  languished.  The  Iroquois,  grown 
insolent  from  a  knowledge  of  its  weakness,  became  more  bold 
in  their  attacks,  and  even  cruelly  tortured  a  French  prisoner. 
The  De  Caens  furnished  inadequate  supplies  of  food,  clothing, 
and  ammunition,  so  that  at  times  the  colony  was  reduced  to 
great  extremities.  Everything  seemed  to  wither  under  their 
monopoly. 

Cardinal  Richelieu,  one  of  the  greatest  statesman  who  ever 
swayed  the  destinies  of  France,  was  now  in  power.  A  1627. 
part  of  his  comprehensive  policy  for  the  aggrandizement  of  his 
sovereign  and  country  was,  the  development  of  the  French 
navy  and  colonies,  and  the  suppression  of  the  Huguenots.  He 
straightway  annulled  the  charter  of  the  De  Caens,  and  organ- 
ized the  Company  of  the  Hundred  Associates,  with  the  abso- 
lute sovereignty  of  the  whole  of  New  France,  from  Florida  to 
Hudson's  Bay,  and  with  the  complete  monopoly  of  trade, 
except  the  whale  and  cod  fisheries.  It  was  required  to  settle 
four  thousand  Catholic  colonists  within  fifteen  years,  and  to 
maintain  and  permanently  endoAV  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
in  New  France ;  and  all  Huguenots  were  banished  from  the 
country. 

But  before  this  comprehensive,  and,  but  for  its  religious 
intolerance,  wise  scheme  could  be  carried  into  efiect,  a  new 
disaster  assailed  the  colony.  Before  describing  this,  we  must 
briefly  recount  the  recent  fortunes  of  Acadia.  The  pirat- 
ical expedition  of  Argall  in  1614  had  furnished  the  English 
with  an  excuse  for  the  occupation  of  that  country,  where  the 
French,  represented  by  Biencourt,  had  again  planted  a  strug- 
gling colony.  In  that  year,  the  *'  Grand  Council  of  Plymouth," 
an  association  of  English  merchants,  received  from  King  James 
a  patent,  covering  all  the  territory  from  the  fortieth  to  the 


66  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

forty-eighth  degree  of  north  latitude,  that  is,  from  the  parallel 
of  Philadelphia  to  that  of  the  Bay  of  Chaleur,  and  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  This  comprehended  the  greater  part 
of  Canada  and  Acadia.  Among  the  members  of  this  ' '  Grand 
Council"  was  Sir  William  Alexander,  a  Scottish  gentleman  of 
considerable  political  influence  and  of  enterprising  patriotism. 
He  obtained  from  King  James  the  concession  of  the  Acadian 
peninsula  (1621,  renewed  1625),  and  undertook  the  found- 
ing of  a  New  Scotland,  after  the  analogy  of  the  New  France 
and  New  England,  already  planted  or  projected.  Under  his 
authority,  a  Scottish  colon}"  was  established,  and  a  fort  built  at 
Port  Royal,  near  the  previous  settlement  of  the  French.  King 
Charles  I.  renewed  the  patent  of  Sir  William  Alexander,  and 
created  a  minor  order  of  nobility,  called  the  "Knights-Baro- 
nets of  Nova  Scotia."  It  was  composed  of  one  hundred  and 
fifty  members,  who  received  that  title,  together  with  liberal 
land  grants,  on  conditions  of  settling  a  certain  number  of  immi- 
grants on  their  new  domains.  What  is  now  the  province  of 
New  Brunswick  received  the  name  'of  Alexandria,  and  the 
present  peninsula  of  Nova  Scotia,  that  of  Caledonia.  It  was 
intended  to  transfer  thither  the  feudal  institutions  of  the  Old 
World,  and  to  build  up  a  great  Scottish  province  on  this  rocky 
outpost  of  British  civilization. 

At  this  time  Charles  I.  made  an  ineffectual  attempt  to  relieve 
1688.  the  Huguenots  besieged  in  Rochelle,  and  declared  war 
against  France.  Sir  William  Alexander  thought  the  moment  op- 
portune to  secure  the  conquest  of  the  extensive  country,  to  most 
of  which  he  had  as  yet  only  a  paper  claim.  Through  his  influ- 
ence, David  Kirk,  a  Huguenot  refugee,  received  a  royal  com- 
mission to  seize  the  French  forts  in  Acadia  and  on  the  St. 
Lawrence.  He  organized  an  expedition  of  a  dozen  ships,  and, 
overcoming  the  small  French  force  at  Port  Royal,  took  posses- 
sion of  the  country  for  Sir  William  Alexander. 

Later  in  the  summer  Kirk  entered  the  St.  Lawrence,  burned 
Tadousac,  and  sent  a  summons  to  Champlain,  at  Quebec,  to 
surrender  that  post.  The  commandant  ostentatiously  feasted 
the  messengers  —  although  the  town  was  on  an  allowance  of  only 


CHAMPLAIN'S   ADMINISTRATION.  67 

seven  ounces  of  bread  per  day,  and  the  magazine  contained 
but  fifty  pounds  of  powder  —  and  returned  a  gallant  defiance  to 
Kirk.  The  latter,  adopting  the  policy  of  delay,  cruised  in  the 
Gulf,  and  captured  the  transports  of  the  new  company,  laden 
with  the  winter's  provision  for  the  colony.  In  consequence  of 
this  disaster,  the  sufferings  of  the  French  were  intense.  The 
crops  of  their  few  arable  acres  were  unusually  scanty.  With 
the  early  spring  the  famishing  population  burrowed  in  leao. 
the  forests  for  edible  roots.  But  the  heroic  spirit  of  Cham- 
plain  sustained  their  courage.  Still,  the  summer  wore  away, 
and  the  expected  provision  ships  from  France  came  not.  At 
length,  towards  the  end  of  July,  hungry  eyes  discovered  from 
the  Castle  of  St.  Louis  three  vessels  rounding  the  headland  of 
Point  Levi.  They  brought  not,  however,  the  much  needed 
succours  ;  they  were  English  ships  of  war,  commanded  by  two 
brothers  of  Admiral  Kirk.  The  little  garrison  of  sixteen 
famine-wasted  men  surrendered  with  the  honours  of  war,  and 
Louis  Kirk,  installed  as  Governor,  saved  from  starvation  the 
conquered  inhabitants,  less  than  one  hundred  in  all. 

As  peace  had  been  concluded  before  the  surrender  of 
Quebec,  Champlain  urged  the  apathetic  French  court  to  demand 
its  restoration.  This  demand  was  made,  and,  by  the  treaty  of 
St.  Germain-en-Laye,  signed  March  27th,  1632,  the  whole  of 
Canada,  Cape  Breton  and  Acadia,  was  restored  to  the  French. 
De  Caen  was  granted  a  monopoly  of  the  fur  trade  for  one  year, 
to  indemnify  him  for  losses  during  the  war ;  and  the  red-cross 
banner  of  England,  after  waving  for  three  years  from  the 
Castle  of  St.  Louis,  gave  place  to  the  lilied  flag  of  France. 

Meanwhile,  the  Nova  Scotia  colonization  scheme  of  Sir  Wil- 
liam Alexander  had  proved  an  utter  failure.  The  grand  titles 
of  his  knight-baronets  had  not  attracted  settlers  to  those 
rugged  shores.  He  sought,  therefore,  to  detach  the  French 
settled  within  the  limits  of  his  grant  from  their  rightful  alle- 
giance. To  this  end,  Claude  La  Tour,  who  had  held  a  fort  for 
his  king  at  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Croix,  was  won  by  the  flat- 
teries of  Sir  William  to  become  a  knight-baronet  of  Nova 
Scotia,  and  married  an  English  court  lady.     He  undertook  also 


68  BISTORT  OF  CANADA. 

to  bring  over  his  son  to  the  interests  of  the  British,  and 
received  a  grant  of  the  southern  part  of  the  peninsula  of 
Nova  Scotia.  Young  La  Tour,  however,  who  held  a  fort  for 
the  French  at  Cape  Sable,  proved  faithful  to  his  country,  and 
resisted  alike  the  solicitations  and  the  armed  assault  of  his  sire, 
who,  with  two  English  ships,  attacked  the  post,  which  was 
gallantly  defended  l)y  his  son.  Despised  by  his  own  country- 
men, and  not  venturing  to  return  to  either  France  or  England, 
the  renegade  La  Tour  was  compelled  to  accept  the  protection 
and  hospitality  of  his  son,  who  would  not,  however,  allow  him 
to  enter  the  fort,  but  built  him  a  lodging  without  its  walls. 

By  the  treaty  of  St.  Germain-en-Laye,  Nova  Scotia  was 
ceded  to  the  French,  and  Isaac  de  Eazille  was  appointed  its 
commandant.  It  was  not  till  the  year  after  the  surrender  of 
1633.  Quebec  to  the  De  Caens  that  Champlain  returned  to 
Canada.  He  was  accompanied  by  two  hundred  immigrants  and 
soldiers,  and  brought  an  abundant  supply  of  provisions,  mer- 
chandise, and  munitions  of  Avar.  With  characteristic  energ}', 
he  established  forts  at  Three  Rivers,  and  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Eichelieu,*  to  protect  the  fur  trade  and  check  the  inroads  of 
the  Iroquois,  and  gi-eatly  promoted  the  prosperity  of  the  colony 
and  the  christianizing  of  the  native  tribes.  The  presence  of 
the  Jesuits  secured  the  grave  decorum  of  the  towa,  which  was 
more  like  a  mission  than  a  garrison,  and  their  apostolic  zeal 
carried  the  Gospel  to  the  distant  shores  of  Lake  Huron. 

But  the  labours  of  Champlain's  busy  life,  spent  in  the  service 
of  his  native  or  adopted  country,  were  drawing  to  a  close.  In 
October,  1635,  being  then  in  the  sixty-eighth  year  of  his  age, 
he  w^as  smitten  with  his  mortal  illness.  For  ten  weeks  he  lay 
in  the  Castle  of  St.  Louis,  unable  even  to  sign  his  name,  but 
awaiting  with  resignation  the  Divine  will.  On  Christmas  Day, 
the  brave  soul  passed  away.  The  body  of  the  honoured 
founder  of  Quebec  was  buried  beneath  the  lofty  cliff  which 
overlooks  the  scene  of  his  patriotic  toil.  The  character  of 
Champlain  was  more  like  that  of  the  knight-errant  of  mediaeval 

*  This  ancient  highway,  by  -which  the  bark  fleets  of  these  enemies  of  Ne-w 
France  invaded  the  colony,  was  long  known  as  the  Eiver  of  the  IrocLUois. 


CHAMPLAIX'S  ADMINISTRATION.  (59 

romance  than  that  of  a  soldier  of  the  practical  seventeenth  cen- 
tury in  which  he  lived.  He  had  greater  virtues  and  fewer 
faults  than  most  men  of  his  age.  In  a  time  of  universal  license 
his  life  was  pure.  With  singular  magnanimity,  he  devoted 
himself  to  the  interests  of  his  patrons.  Although  traffic  with 
the  natives  was  very  lucrative,  he  carefully  refrained  from 
engaging  in  it.  His  sense  of  justice  was  stern,  yet  his  conduct 
was  tempered  with  mercy.  He  won  the  unfaltering  confidence 
of  the  Indian  tribes ;  suspicious  of  others,  in  him  they  had 
boundless  trust.  His  zeal  for  the  spread  of  Christianity  was 
intense.  The  salvation  of  one  soul,  he  was  wont  to  declare, 
was  of  more  importance  than  the  founding  of  an  empire.  His 
epitaph  is  written  in  the  record  of  his  busy  life.  For  well- 
nigh  thirty  years,  he  laboured  without  stint  and  against  almost 
insuperable  difficulties,  for  the  struggling  colony.  A  score  of 
times  he  crossed  the  Atlantic  in  the  tardy,  incommodious,  and 
often  scurvy-smitten  vessels  of  the  period,  in  order  to  advance 
its  interests.  His  name  is  embalmed  in  the  history  of  his 
adopted  country,  and  still  lives  in  the  memory  of  a  grateful 
people,  and  in  the  designation  of  the  beautiful  lake  on  which 
he,  first  of  white  men,  sailed.  His  widow,  originally  a  Hugue- 
not, espoused  her  husband's  faith,  and  died  a  nun  at  Meaux  in 
1654.  His  account  of  his  voyage  to  Mexico,  and  his  history  of 
New  France,  bear  witness  to  his  literary  skill  and  powers  of 
observation ;  and  his  summary  of  Christian  doctrine,  written 
for  the  native  tribes,  is  a  touching  monument  of  his  piety. 


HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 


CHAPTEK  VT. 

ENGLISH  COLONIZATION  —  CANADA  UNDER  THE  HUNDRED  ASSO- 
CIATES. 

Jamestown  Founded,  1607  —  Indian  Massacre  —  Maryland  and  New  England 
Colonies  —  Moutmagny,  Governor  of  Canada,  1637  —  Madame  de  la  Peltrie 
—  Marie  de  I'Incarnatiou  —  Founding  of  Ville  Marie  (Montreal),  1642  —  In- 
dian Wars  and  Treaties  —  The  Jesuit  Missionaries  —  Isaac  Jogues  —  Bres- 
sani. 

IN  order  to  understand  the  prolonged  conflict  between  France 
and  Great  Britain,  for  the  possession  of  the  North  Ameri- 
can continent,  it  will  be  necessary  to  trace  briefly  the  progress 
of  English  colonization.  It  was  not  till  the  year  1607,  one 
hundred  and  ten  years  after  the  discovery  of  America  by  Cabot, 
that  a  permanent  English  settlement  was  made  in  the  New 
World.  It  consisted  of  one  hundred  and  five  emigrants,  of 
whom  forty-eight  Avere  "  gentlemen,"  and  only  twelve  labourers 
and  four  carpenters,  sent  out  by  a  company  of  London  mer- 
chants, incorporated  under  royal 
charter.  They  entered  the  magnifi- 
cent Chesapeake  Bay,  and  began 
their  settlement  at  Jamestown,  on 
the  James  Eiver.  Indolence,  strife, 
and  jealousy  plunged  the  colony 
into  anarchy  and  despair.  Before 
autumn  half  of  its  number  had  died, 
and  the  rest  were  enfeebled  with 
hunger  and  disease.  They  were 
only  saved  from  destruction  by  the 
energy  and  ability  of  Captain  John 
Smith,  the  romantic  story  of  whose 
rescue  from  death  by  Pocahontas  is 
one  of  the  most  pleasing  legends  of 
CAETaur  JOHS  SMITH.  early  colonization.     AVith  the  com- 


E.VGLISn  COLONIZATION. 


71 


mantling  influence  of  a  great  spirit,  Smith  asserted  his  authority 

over  even  his  Indian  captors.     By  exhibiting  his  watch  and 

compass,      and      explaining 

some  of  the  wonders  of  as-      v ,  ^'^ 

tronomy,    he  overawed  the      *  ^  —  •  •• 

minds  of  the   savages,  and 

not    only    escaped    tortm*e 

but  acquired  great  influence 

among  them. 

Successive  re-enforcements 
of  the  Virginia  colony,  con- 
sisting chiefly  of  broken- 
down  gentlemen,  bankrupt 
tradesmen,  and  idle  and 
dissolute  fugitives  from  jus- 
tice, increased  the  number 
in  three  years  to  four  hun- 
dred and  ninety  persons, 
when  John  Smith,  injured 
by  an  explosion  of  gunpowder,  was  compelled  to  return  to 
England.  In  six  months  vice  and  famine  had  reduced  the 
colony  to  sixty  persons,  who  prepared  to  abandon  the  country. 
Lord  Delaware  opportunely  arrived  with  supplies ;  but  in 
twelve  3'-ears,  after  the  expenditure  of  $400,000,  it  numbered 
only  six  hundred  persons.  At  length,  re-enforced  by  a  supe- 
rior class  of  immigrants,  its  population  rapidly  increased. 

In  the  spring  of  the  year  1622,  occurred  the  first  of  those 
Indian  massacres,  which  so  often  crimsoned  the  hearths  of  the 
English  settlements,  and  inaugurated  a  bitter  war  of  extermi- 
nation against  the  red  race.  It  was  planned  with  the  iitmost 
secrecy  and  treachery.  *'  Sooner,"  said  the  Indians,  "  shall  the 
sky  fall,  than  peace  be  violated  on  our  part."  At  noon,  on  the 
22d  of  March,  throughout  an  extent  of  one  hundred  and  forty 
miles,  they  fell  upon  the  unsuspecting  white  population,  and  in 
an  hour  three  hundred  and  forty-seven  persons  sank  beneath 
the  tomahawk,  or  scalping-knife.  The  colony  at  first  was  par- 
alyzed with  fear,  but  soon  a  fierce  retaliation  ensued.     In  1644, 


•      SMITH  AND  HIS  CAPTORS. 


72  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

similar  scenes  were  renewed.  They  became  of  gad  frequency 
during  the  early  colonial  days,  and  gave  the  name  of  the  Dark 
and  Bloody  Ground  to  the  scenes  of  these  sanguinary  conflicts. 
Still  the  colony  throve  amain,  and  at  Christmas,  1648,  thirty- 
one  ships  were  in  Chesapeake  Bay,  twenty  thousand  inhabi- 
tants were  dwelling  on  its  shores,  and  so  greatly  had  their 
families  increased,  that  "the  huts  in  the  wilderness  were  as 
full  as  the  birds'  nests  of  the  woods." 

In  1632,  Lord  Baltimore,  a  Iloman  Catholic  nobleman,  re- 
ceived a  grant  of  the  territory  which,  in  honour  of  Henrietta 
Maria,  wife  of  Charles  I. ,  he  called  Maryland.  This  he  held 
by  feudal  tenure,  paying  only  a  yearly  rent  of  two  Indian 
arrows,  and  a  fifth  of  all  the  gold  and  silver  found.  Catholics 
and  Protestants  alike  enjoj^ed  religious  toleration,  and  by  1660 
its  population  had  increased  to  ten  thousand  souls. 

Plymouth  colony  was  the  offspring  of  religious  impulse.  A 
company  of  English  Puritans  had  sought,  in  the  republic  of 
Holland,  that  liberty  of  worship  which  they  were  denied  in 
their  own  land.  "  Moved  by  a  hope  and  inward  zeal  of  ad- 
vancing the  gospel  of  the  kingdom  of  Christ,  in  the  remote 
parts  of  the  New  World,"  as  they  devoutly  declared,  they 
fitted  out  two  small  vessels,  the  "  Speedwell"  and  the  "  May- 
flower," of  immortal  memory,  for  the  purpose  of  planting  a  colony 
in  New  England.  After  disaster  and  delays,  the  "  Mayflower" 
alone  proceeded  on  her  voyage,  on  the  6th  of  September,  1620, 
bearing  into  self-sought  exile  for  conscience'  sake,  one  hundred 
and  one  persons.  They  landed  first  on  the  barren  sand-dunes 
of  Cape  Cod,  and  afterward,  on  Christmas  Day,  on  Plymouth 
Eock.  The  winter  was  long  and  severe.  Before  spring,  half 
of  their  number  had  died,  and  the  survivors  were  scarcely  able 
to  bury  the  dead.  Yet,  when  the  vessel  that  brought  them 
returned  to  England, 

"  O  strong  hearts  and  true !  not  one  went  back  with  the  Mayflower. ^^ 

At  the  beginning  of  the  following  winter,  came  a  new  arrival 
of  immigrants,  but  no  supplies  of  food.  For  four  months  they 
lived  on  clams,  mussels,  ground-nuts,  and  acoms.     The  third 


EXGLlSn  COLONIZATION.  73 

year  ^vas  also  a  time  of  pinching  want,  but  prosperity  at  length 
gradually  dawned  upon  the  town  of  Plymouth.  Amid  such  suf- 
ferings and  privations  are  the  foundations  of  empire  laid. 

In  the  year  1G28,  a  Puritan  colony,  from  the  shires  of  Dor- 
set and  Lincoln,  England,  numbering  about  a  hundred  per- 
sons, animated  by  intense  religious  zeal,  formed  a  settlement  at 
Salem,  in  INIassachusetts  Bay.  The  following  year,  tAvo  hun- 
dred more  arrived.  But  the  infant  colony  was  cradled  in  suf- 
fering. This  year  eighty  persons  died  from  disease  and  un- 
wonted exposure.  The  next  year  fifteen  hundred  arrived,  leso. 
but  before  December  two  hundred  had  died,  and  another  hun- 
dred, disheartened  by  disaster,  returned  to  England. 

The  following  year  only  ninety  persons  arrived.  But,  amid 
sickness  and  suffering,  no  trace  of  repining  appears  in  the  lesi. 
records  of  the  colony.  The  early  settlements  were  chiefly  at 
Salem,  Charlestown,  and  Boston.  Notwithstanding  temporary 
reverses,  the  population  continued  to  increase,  as  many  as 
three  thousand  immigrants  arriving  in  a  single  year.  leas. 
Among  the  citizens  of  the  new  religious  commonwealth,  were 
such  distinguished  divines  as  Cotton  and  Hooker  ;  and  Eliot  and 
Mayhew,  the  apostles  to  the  Indians,  who,  laying  aside  the  pride 
of  learning,  instructed  the  savage  neophytes  of  the  forest  in 
the  doctrines  of  the  Gospel ;  and  such  laymen  as  Governor 
Winthrop,  the  sturdy  Endicott,  the  younger  Vane,  friend 
of  Milton  and  martyr  of  liberty,  and  others  of  honoured 
memory. 

One  of  these,  Eoger  Williams,  became  the  founder  of  the 
province  of  Rhode  Island.  Of  enlarged  and  liberal  mind,  he 
entertained  views  on  religious  toleration,  far  in  advance  of  his 
time.  Exiled  for  these  opinions  from  ISlassachusetts  colony,  he 
wandered,  in  the  bitter  winter  of  1635-36,  for  fourteen  weeks 
through  the  pathless  forests  ;  and  in  the  following  June,  Avith 
five  companions,  planted,  "  as  a  shelter  for  persons  distressed 
in  conscience,"  the  settlement,  to  which,  in  expression  of  his 
confidence  in  God,  he  gave  the  name  of  Providence. 

This  same  year,  a  ISlassachusetts  colony  of  one  hundred  per- 
sons,  settled  in  the  beautiful  Connecticut  valley,   under   the 

10 


74  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

guidance  of  the  pious  divine,  Thomas  Hooker,  and  two  years 
1C3  after,  another,  led  by  John  Davenport,  its  pastor,  in  New 
Haven.  The  previous  year  (1637)  the  first  New  England  In- 
dian war  broke  out.  The  outrages  of  the  Pequods  compelled 
the  Connecticut  settlers  to  resort  to  arms.  About  sixty  men, 
one-third  of  the  whole  colony,  attacked  a  fort  garrisoned  by 
ten  times  their  number,  which  they  consumed,  with  its  inmates, 
and  utterly  exterminated  the  Pequod  nation,  a  community  of 
over  two  thousand  souls — an  act  of  extreme  and  unjustifiable 
severity. 

Political  unity  was  given  to  these  scattered  colonies  by  a 
1643.  confederacy,  formed  by  mutual  agreement,'  for  defence 
against  the  Indians,  the  French,  and  the  Dutch.  The  growth 
of  the  colonial  trade  was  rapid,  and  began  to  awaken  the  jeal- 
ousy of  the  English  merchants  ;  and  by  the  Navigation  Act  of 
1G51,  extended  in  1672,  the  colonies  were  excluded  from  coast- 
wise and  transatlantic  commerce,  which  could  only  be  prosecuted 
in  English  vessels.  The  increase  in  population  also  excited  the 
hostility  of  the  native  tribes,  who  were  already  outnumbered  on 
their  own  soil,*  and  were  destined  to  be  pushed  ever  backward 
before  the  advancing  tide  of  white  immigration  and  expansion,  f 

"We  return,  to  follow  more  minutely  the  varying  fortunes  of 
1636.  New  France.  M.  De  Montmagny,|  the  successor  of 
Champlain,  arrived  in  Canada  in  1636.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  military-religious  order  of  the  Knights  of  Malta.  He  en- 
tered, with  hearty  sympathy,  into  the  pious  enthusiasm  of  the 
Jesuits.  As  with  his  train  of  officers  and  gentlemen  he 
climbed  the  cliff  of  Quebec,  he  prostrated  himself  before  a 

*  In  1675,  the  white  population  of  New  England  was  estimated  at  55,000,  and 
the  Indian  population  at  30,000. 

t  As  early  as  1G15,  the  Dutch  had  a  trading  post  at  Alhany.  In  1623,  they 
founded  New  Amsterdam,  now  New  York.  In  1633,  the  Swedes  colonized  Dela- 
ware, but  were  compelled  to  cede  their  territory  to  the  Dutch  in  1655.  The 
Dutch,  in  turn,  were  obliged,  in  1664,  to  yield  their  possessions  to  the  English, 
now  supreme  from  Acadia  to  Florida,  which  last,  in  1764,  the  Si^auiards  ceded 
in  exchange  for  Havana  and  Louisiana. 

\  From  this  Governor  is  derived  the  name  Onontio,  applied  by  the  Indians, to 
all  his  successors.  It  is  the  translation  into  their  language  of  his  name,  and 
signifies  "  Great  Mountain." 


THE  HUNDRED  ASSOCIATES.  75 

cnicifix  by  the  pathway,  followed  by  all  his  attendants.  He 
stood  as  godfather  at  the  baptism  of  a  savage  jDroselyte.  He 
held  a  burning  taper  at  the  funeral  of  another.  Side  by  side 
with  an  Indian  neophyte,  he  bore  tho  canopy  of  the  host. 
The  very  atmosphere  of  Quebec  was  one  of  religious  observ- 
ance. Morning,  noon,  and  night  the  sweet  clangour  of  the 
bells  rang  out  the  call  to  prayer.  Soldiers,  artisans,  and 
labourers  daily  thronged  the  church  for  mass  and  vespers.  Ab- 
sence from  service,  or  the  sin  of  blasphemy,  was  punished  by 
exposure  in  a  pillory  at  the  church  door. 

Yet,  amid  this  spiritual  prosperity,  the  temporal  affairs  of 
the  colony  were  much  depressed.  The  Company  of  the  Hun- 
dred Associates,  from  which  so  much  had  been  expected,  did 
little  but  send  a  few  vessels  annually  to  traffic  with  the  natives. 
Instead  of  transporting  four  thousand  colonists  in  fifteen  years, 
in  the  thirty-five  years  of  its  existence  it  did  not  send  out  one 
thousand.  At  Champlain's  death,  there  were  only  two  hundred 
and  fifty  Europeans  in  the  colony.  In  five  years  more,  scarce 
a  hundred  were  added.  In  1648,  the  European  population  was 
only  eight  hundred,  and  in  1662,  when  the  company's  charter 
was  annulled,  it  was  legs  than  two  thousand,  most  of  whom  had 
come  out  without  its  aid.  So  slowly,  as  compared  with  that  of 
Virginia  and  New  England,  did  the  population  of  New  France 
increase. 

Nevertheless,  an  intense  interest  in  the  colony  was  kindled  in 
the  mother  country.  For  forty  years,  from  1632  to  1672,  the 
Jesuit  Fathers  sent  home  to  the  Superior  of  the  Order,  annual 
"  Relations  "  of  the  progress  of  the  Indian  missions,  which  cir- 
culated widely  throughout  France.*  Several  families  of  rank 
and  fortune  were  induced  to  immigrate  with  their  servants  and 
dependants,  and  received  grants  of  land  on  seigneurial  tenure, 
to  be  hereafter  described  Many  persons  devoted  to  religion, 
also,  both  priests  and  nuns,  eager  to  engage  in  missionary  toil 
among  the  savages,  came  to  Canada. 

*  These  were  collected  and  published  in  three  large  8vo  volumes  by  the  Ca- 
nadian Government  in  1858.  They  are  a  perfect  mine  of  information  on  early 
Canadian  history. 


76  HISTORY   OF  CANADA. 

In  the  Church  of  Montmartre  perpetual  prayer  was  offered 
for  the  mission,  by  a  succession  of  nuns  lying  prostrate,  day 
and  night,  before  the  altar.  In  many  a  convent  cell,  gentle 
hearts  glowed  with  inextinguishable  longings,  to  teach  the 
dusky  children  of  the  Avilderness  the  story  of  the  love  of  ]\Iary 
and  of  Christ. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  of  these  fair  devotees  was 
Madame  de  la  Peltrie,  a  lady  of  wealth  and  noble  birth,  who, 
left  a  childless  widow  at  the  age  of  twenty-two,  burned  with  an 
ardent  passion  to  found  a  seminary  for  Indian  girls  in  Canada. 
With  her  came  Marie  Guyart,  better  known  by  her  conventual 
name  of  Marie  de  I'lncarnation,  who  had  also  been  left  a  widow 
at  the  age  of  twenty.  With  several  companions,  they  arrived 
at  Quebec  in  1639.  As  they  landed  from  their  floating  prison, 
they  kissed  the  soil  that  was  to  be  the  scene  of  their  pious 
labours,  and  were  received  with  enthusiasm  by  the  inhabitants, 
and  with  firing  of  cannon,  and  the  best  military  parade  of  the 
little  garrison. 

The  intense  religious  enthusiasm  of  the  nuns  soon  found 
employment  in  nursing  the  victims  of  the  loathsome  sraall-pox, 
which  had  broken  out  with  extreme  virulence  in  the  foul  cabins 
of  the  natives.  In  three  years,  the  massive  stone  convent,  on 
the  site  still  occupied  by  the  Ursuline  nuns,  was  reared,  and 
beneath  the  shade  of  the  tall  ash-tree  yet  standing,  Mary  of 
the  Incarnation  instructed  the  Indian  children  in  the  truths  of 
salvation.  For  thirty-two  years,  she  and  Madame  de  la  Peltrie 
lived  and  laboured  among  these  savage  tribes,  and  then,  almost 
at  the  same  time,  ceased  from  their  pious  toil. 

The  Hotel  Dieu,  a  hospital  for  the  sick,  was  also  endowed  by 
the  celebrated  Duchesse  d'Aiguillon,  niece  of  Cardinal  Eiche- 
lieu.  The  Marquis  de  Silleri,  a  Knight  of  ISIalta,  who  had 
renounced  the  world  and  devoted  his  immense  wealth  to  the 
service  of  the  Church,  had  founded,  in  the  little  cove  four 
miles  above  Quebec  which  still  bears  his  name,  a  mission, 
which  was  early  baptized  in  blood.  Le  Jcune  collected  some 
Indian  children,  taught  thorn  the  Lord's  Prayer  and  Creed  in 
Latin,  and  declared  that  he  would  not  exchange  his  position 


THE  HUNDRED  ASSOCIATES.  77 

for  a  chair  in  the  first  university  of  Europe.  Thus,  almost 
before  there  were  inhabitants  in  Quebec,  were  provided  the 
charities  and  institutions  of  Christian  civilization. 

A  notable  event  now  took  place,  of  strange  and  romantic 
interest.  The  annual  "  Relations"  of  the  Jesuits  created,  as 
we  have  seen,  in  religious  circles  in  France  an  intense  enthu- 
siasm to  share  the  honours  and  celestial  rewards  of  toil  for  the 
salvation  of  the  savages.  It  is  asserted  that  M.  de  la  Dauver- 
sicre,  a  receiver  of  taxes,  and  Father  Olier,  a  young  priest, 
simultaneously  conceived  the  idea,  or  rather,  as  they  i64o. 
believed,  the  Divine  suggestion  of  establishing  on  the  island  of 
Montreal,  although  it  was  yet  without  inhabitants,  a  seminary, 
a  hospital,  and  a  college.  The  zeal  of  pious  ladies  and  wealthy 
devotees  was  kindled ;  the  sum  of  seventy-five  thousand  dollars 
was  raised,  and  the  Association  of  Notre  Dame  de  Montreal 
was  formed,  consisting  of  forty-five  persons.  A  grant  of  the 
island  was  obtained,  and  Paul  de  Chomedey,  Sieur  de  Maison- 
neuve,  a  devout  and  valiant  soldier,  received  the  appointment 
of  Governor.  In  the  venerable  cathedral  of  Notre  Dame,  by  a 
solemn  ceremonial,  the  mission  was  consecrated  to  the  Holy 
Family,  under  the  title  of  VzUe  Marie  de  Montreal.  Commer- 
cial speculation  had  no  part  in  the  undertaking,  for  the  asso- 
ciates had  pledged  themselves  to  refrain  from  the  lucrative  fur 
trade.  The  inevitable  attacks  by  the  savages  had  no  terrors, 
although  the  site  of  the  mission  was  a  most  perilous  outpost — 
"  a  hand  thrust  into  a  wolf  s  den."  The  new  settlement  was 
the  offspring  solely  of  religious  enthusiasm. 

Jealous  probably  of  a  prospective  rival,  or  ai3prehensive  of 
the  dangers  which  must  be  incurred,  Montmagny  endeavoured 
to  induce  Maisonneuve  to  remain  at  the  Island  of  Orleans,  but 
the  latter  resolved  to  brave  the  perils  of  the  frontier  post.  "  I 
have  come  not  to  deliberate,  but  to  act,"  he  exclaimed,  "  and  I 
will  go  to  Montreal,  though  every  tree  were  an  Iroquois." 

In  the  spring  of  1642,  the  little  flotilla  bearing  the  founders 
of  the  new  mission  glided  up  the  river — Montmagny,  as  repre- 
senting the  Hundred  Associates,  Maisonneuve,  the  Jesuit  Vi- 
mont,  Madame  de  la  Peltrie,  Mademoiselle  Jeanne  Mance,  and 


78  HISTORT  OF  CAXADA. 

about  forty  soldiers,  artisans  and  labourers.  As  they  landed 
(May  17th),  they  fell  upon  their  knees  and  sang  a  hymn  of 
thanksgiving.  An  altar  was  soon  erected  and  decked  Avith 
flowers,  and,  in  that  magnificent  amphitheatre  of  nature.  Father 
Vimont  celebrated  mass  and  invoked  the  blessing  of  Heaven  on 
the  new  colonists.  ' '  You  are  a  grain  of  mustard-seed,"  he  said, 
"  that  shall  rise  and  grow  till  its  branches  overshadow  the  earth. 
God's  smile  is  upon  you,  and  your  children  shall  fill  the  land." 
Thus  piously  were  laid  the  foundations  of  Ville  Marie  de  IMon- 
treal,  the  future  commercial  metropolis  of  Canada. 

With  the  early  dawn,  the  little  colony  was  alert.  There  was 
hard  work  to  be  done  before  the  settlement  could  be  regarded 
as  at  all  safe.  Seizing  an  axe,  and  wielding  it  as  dextrously 
as  he  had  often  wielded  his  good  sword  in  battle,  Maisonneuve 
felled  the  first  tree.  The  outline  of  a  little  fort  was  traced, 
the  Governor  himself  working  with  spade  and  mattock  in 
digging  the  trench.  The  scene  revived  in  the  classic  mind  of 
Vimont  the  traditions  of  the  founding  of  the  storied  City  of 
the  Seven  Hills.  But  here,  his  prescient  vision  beheld  the 
founding  of  a  new  Rome,  a  mother  city  of  the  faith,  which 
should  nourish  and  bring  up  children  in  the  wilderness, 
extending  her  power  over  savage  races  and  her  protection  to 
far-oflf  missions. 

In  a  short  time  a  strong  palisade  was  erected,  enclosing  a 
spot  of  ground  situated  in  a  meadow  between  the  river  and  the 
present  Place  d'Armes,  near  the  site  of  the  stately  church  of 
Notre  Dame.  The  little  fort  was  daily  strengthened,  a  few 
cannon  were  mounted,  and  loop-holes  were  made  for  musketry. 
1C43.  The  following  year  the  mission  was  re-enforced,  and  con- 
tinued gradually  to  increase,  notwithstanding  the  frequent 
attacks  of  the  ferocious  Iroquois,  by  which  several  of  the 
settlers  were  slain.  The  terror  of  the  savages  at  the  firearms 
of  the  French  was  largely  overcome  by  their  familiarity  with 
those  weapons.  Indeed,  many  of  them  had  obtained  carbines 
from  the  Dutch  traders  at  Fort  Orange  (Albany),  and  had 
learned  to  use  them  with  fatal  efiect.  Growing  more  audacious 
with  success,  they  formed  a  concerted  plan  for  the  extermina- 


THE  HUNDRED  ASSOCIATES.  79 

tion  of  the  French.  Seven  hundred  savage  warriors  attacked 
the  fort,  planted  by  INIontmagny,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Richelieu. 
They  swarmed  up  to  the  palisades,  thrust  their  guns  through 
the  loop-holes,  fought  with  desperate  courage,  and  were  with 
great  difficulty  repulsed.  Beneath  the  very  guns  of  Quebec, 
Three  Eivers,  and  IMontreal,  they  lay  in  wait  for  their  human 
prey.  No  man  could  hunt,  or  fish,  or  fell  a  tree,  or  cultivate 
the  meagre  lauds  around  the  settlements,  without  the  risk  of  his 
life.  A  sudden  volley,  a  fiendish  yell,  a  swift  rush,  and  the 
naked  savages  vanished  into  the  wood  with  their  booty  of 
bleeding  scalp,  leaving  their  mangled  victim  dead  or  dying  on 
the  ground. 

The  audacious  Iroquois  threatened  to  exterminate  the  Huron 
and  Algonquin  allies  of  the  French.  These  wretched  beings 
were  wasted  by  famine  and  pestilence,  and  were  thoroughly 
cowed  b}'  fear.  Their  hunting-grounds  were  invaded  by  their 
ruthless  foe,  and  they  were  reduced  at  times  to  subsist  on  the 
bark  of  trees  and  the  raw-hide  thongs  of  their  snow-shoes. 
Let  one  example  of  the  atrocities  of  savage  warfare  suffice. 
A  band  of  Algonquins  retreated  in  midwinter  to  the  forest 
recesses  far  up  the  Ottawa  to  hunt  moose.  They  were  tracked 
by  the  stealthy  and  persistent  Iroquois,  who  burst  at  midnight 
upon  the  encampment.  Many  of  the  sleepers  were  slain  on 
the  spot.  The  survivors  were  dragged  twenty  days'  journey 
to  the  Mohawk  towns.  On  these  their  captors  wreaked  their 
utmost  rage.  They  hacked  their  bodies  with  knives  and  shells, 
scorched  them  with  burning  brands,  and  after  exhausting  every 
mode  of  inflicting  suflering,  in  their  unhallowed  frenzy  they 
devoured  the  quivering  flesh.  "  They  are  not  men  but  wolves," 
said  a  wretched  squaw,  who,  escaping  their  tortures,  found  her 
way  to  Quebec. 

A  temporary  peace  was  at  length  concluded  with  the  Iro- 
quois. The  kindly  treatment  by  the  French  of  some  Mohawk 
prisoners,  whom  they  had  ransomed  from  their  Algonquin 
allies — an  act  as  politic  as  it  was  Christian — touched  with  grati- 
tude even  the  savage  nature  of  those  warriors,  who  had 
expected  nothing  but  torture  and  death.     One  of  these  was 


80  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

sent  home  to  his  tribe,  with  the  promise  that  the  others  would 
be  liberated  if  the  Iroquois  would  make  a  treaty  of  peace. 

1645.  Mohawk  envoys  accordingly  appeared  the  following 
summer  at  Three  Eivers,  and  after  much  feasting,  speech-mak- 
ing, and  many  songs,  dances,  and  gifts  of  wampum,  the  war- 
hatchet  was  buried  and  the  peace-pipe  was  smoked.  *'  Let  the 
clouds  be  dispersed  ;  let  the  sun  shine  on  all  the  land  between 
us,"  said  the  Iroquois.  "  We  have  thrown  the  hatchet  so  high 
in  the  air,  that  no  arm  on  earth  can  reach  to  bring  it  down. 
The  spirits  of  our  braves  that  have  been  slain  in  war  have  gone 
so  deep  into  the  earth  that  they  can  never  be  heard  calling  for 
vengeance."  *'  I  place  a  stone  on  the  graves,"  replied  an 
Algonquin  chief,  '*  that  no  one  may  move  their  bones." 

The  following  year  this  treaty  was  solemnly  ratified,  with 

1646.  many  more  speeches  and  wampum-belts.  But  before  long 
the  peace  concluded  with  such  imposing  ceremony  was  wantonly 
broken  by  the  caprice  of  the  Iroquois.  Soon  the  hunters  of 
men  were  again  on  the  war-path,  pursuing  their  human  prey. 
1617.  The  tragic  scenes  of  massacre  and  burning  and  cannibal 
feasting  were  repeated,  with  all  their  sickening  atrocities.  The 
fort  at  the  mouth  of  the  Kichelieu  was  pillaged  and  destroyed, 
and  the  settlements  on  the  St.  Lawrence  were  threatened  with 
extermination. 

Upon  the  Jesuit  missionaries  and  their  Indian  converts  fell 
the  cruel  brunt  of  this  savage  war.  That  subtle  and  sinister 
system,  which,  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  had 
belted  the  world  with  its  missions,  and  won  renown  and  execra- 
tion in  almost  every  land,  gained  some  of  its  grandest  triumphs 
and  exhibited  its  most  heroic  spirit  in  the  wilderness  of  Canada. 
The  Jesuits  had  numbered  as  converts  hundreds  of  thousands 
of  baptized  pagans  in  India  and  the  Moluccas,  in  China  and 
Japan,  in  Brazil  and  Paraguay.  They  almost  entirely  controlled 
the  religious  education  of  youth  in  Europe  ;  and  kept  the  con- 
sciences of  kings,  nobles,  and  great  ladies,  who  sought  at  their 
feet  spiritual  guidance  and  counsel.  They  had  won  well-merited 
fame  for  attainments  in  ancient  learning,  for  modem  sci- 
ence, for  pulpit  eloquence,  and  for  subtle  statecraft.     Under 


THE   nUXDRED  ASSOCIATES. 


81 


the  disguise  of  a  Brahmin,  a  mandarin,  an  astrologer,  a  peas- 
ant, a  scholar,  they  had  compassed  the  world  to  make  prose- 
Mes  to  Eome.  Deciphering  ancient  manuscripts  or  inscriptions, 
sweeping  the  heavens  with  the  telescope,  or  digging  the  earth 
with  a  mattock,  editing  the  classics  or  ancient  Fathers,  or 
teaching  naked  savages  the  Ave  or  Credo,  they  were  alike  the 
obedient  and  zealous  servants  of  their  Order,  to  whose  ad- 
vancement their  whole  being  was  devoted.  They  were  at  once 
among  the  greatest  friends  of  human  learning  and  the  most 
deadly  enemies  of  civil  liberty. 

But  nowhere  did  the  Jesuit  missionaries  exhibit  grander 
moral  heroism,  or  sublimer  self-sacrifice  ;  nowhere  did  they 
encounter  greater  sufferings,  with  more  pious  fortitude,  or 
meet  with  a  more  tragical  fate,  than  in  the  wilderness-missions 
of  New  France.  They  were  the  pioneers  of  civilization,  the 
pathfinders  of  empire  on  this  continent.  With  breviary  and 
crucifix,  at  the  command  of  the  Superior  of  the  Order  at 
Quebec,  they  wandered  all  over  the  vast  country  stretcliing 
from  the  rocky  shores  of  Nova  Scotia  to  the  distant  prairies  of 
the  Far  West,  from  the  regions  around  Hudson's  Bay  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Mississippi  River.  Paddling  all  day  in  their  bark 
canoes  ;  sleeping  at  night  on  the  naked  rock  ;  toiling  over  rug- 
ged portages,  or  through  pathless  forests  ;  pinched  by  hunger, 
gnawed  to  the  bone  by  cold,  often  dependent  for  subsistence  on 
acorns,  the  bark  of  trees,  or  the  bitter  moss  to  which  they  have 
given  their  name  ;  *  lodging  in  Indian  wigwams,  whose  acrid 
smoke  blinded  their  eyes,  and  whose  obscene  riot  was  unutter- 
ably loathsome  to  every  sense ;  braving  peril  and  persecution, 
and  death  itself,  they  persevered  in  their  path  of  self-sacrifice, 
for  the  glory  of  God,f  the  salvation  of  souls,  the  advancement 
of  their  Order,  and  the  extension  of  New  France.  "Not  a 
cape  was  turned,  not  a  river  was  entered,"  writes  Bancroft, 
"  but  a  Jesuit  led  the  way." 

*  "Jesuits'  moss,"  —  fripe  de  rodie  —  a  coarse,  edible  lichen  ^vhich  abounds  in 
tlie  nortliern  wastes, 
t  Ad  majorem  gloriam  Dei,  is  the  motto  of  the  Order  of  Jesus. 
11 


82  HISTORY  OF  CAXADA. 

As  early  as  1626,  Jean  de  Brebeuf  established  a  mission 
among  the  Hurons  on  the  shores  of  the  Georgian  Bay. 

In  1641,  Peres  Jogues  and  RajTnbault  told  the  story  of  the 
Cross  to  a  wondering  assembly  of  two  thousand  red  men  beside 
the  rushing  rapids  of  St.  Marie,  at  the  outlet  of  Lake  Superior, 
five  years  before  Eliot  had  preached  the  Gospel  to  the  Indians 
within  gunshot  of  Boston  town. 

The  story  of  Jogues'  subsequent  adventures  is  one  of  tragic 
1642.  interest.  The  following  summer,  returning  from  Quebec 
with  supplies  for  the  Huron  Mission,  his  party  were  surprised 
by^the  Iroquois  on  Lake  St.  Peter,  and  carried  prisoners  to  the 
Mohawk  towns.  Every  indignity  and  torture  that  the  human 
frame  can  endure,  were  wreaked  upon  the  wretched  priest, —  a 
man  of  gentle  birth,  delicate  culture,  and  scholarly  training, — 
and  his  companions.  With  mangled  hands,  and  bruised  and 
bleeding  body,  he  was  dragged,  in  savage  triumph,  from  to^-n 
to  town,  the  sport  of  wanton  boys  and  cruel  squaws.  His 
companions,  having  been  murdered  or  burned  at  the  stake, 
Jogues  wandered  through  the  wintry  woods  ;  carved  the  cross 
and  the  name  of  Jesus  on  the  trees,  and  lifted  his  voice  in  a 
litany  of  sorrow.  But  his  soul  was'  sustained  by  visions  of  his 
Divine  Master,  and  by  the  holy  joy  of  being  enabled  to  ])ap- 
tize  by  stealth,  no  less  than  seventy  Mohawk  children,  and  thus, 
as  he  fondly  believed,  to  snatch  their  souls  from  eternal  per- 
dition. 

After  a  series  of  hair-breadth  escapes,  he  was  rescued  by  the 
Dutch  at  Fort  Orange,  and  was  restored  to  France.  Feted  and 
caressed  by  the  Queen  of  Louis  XIIL,  and  by  the  ladies  of 
the  court,  he  longed  to  engage  once  more  in  his  self-sacrificing 
missionary  toils,  and,  with  the  early  sf>ring,  took  ship  again  for 
Canada.  Undaunted  by  the  agonies  he  had  endured,  he  returned 
to  the  scene  of  his  sufierings,  to  establish  among  the  Mohawks 
the  Mission  of  the  ]Martyrs,  as  it  was  prophetically  named. 
*'/6o  et  7ion  redibo, —  I  shall  go,  but  I  shall  not  return,"  he 
said,  with  a  just  presentiment  of  his  fate,  as  he  parted  from  his 
friends.  He  was  soon  barbarously  murdered,  and  thus  received 
the  martyr's  starry  and  unwithering  crown  (1644). 


THE  HUNDRED  ASSOCIATES.  83 

Similar  was  the  fate  of  Bressani,  an  Italian  Jesuit.  Taken 
prisoner  like  Jogues,  while  on  his  way  to  the  Huron  Mission, 
scarred,  scourged,  beaten,  mangled,  burned,  and  tortured,  with 
hungry  dogs  fed  off  his  naked  body,  he  still  continued  to  live. 
"  I  could  not  have  believed,"  he  wrote,  "  that  a  man  was  so  hard 
to  kill." 

"I  do  not  know,"  he  says,  in  his  letter  to  the  General  of  the 
Order  at  Rome,  "if  your  Paternity  will  recognize  the  writing 
of  one  whom  you  once  knew  very  well.  The  letter  is  soiled 
and  ill-written,  because  the  writer  has  only  one  finger  of  his 
right  hand  left  entire,  and  cannot  prevent  the  blood  from  his 
wounds,  which  are  still  open,  from  staining  the  paper.  His 
ink  is  gunpowder  niixed  with  water,  and  his  table  is  the 
ground."  He,  too,  was  rescued  by  the  Dutch  at  Fort  Orange, 
returned  to  France,  but  eagerly  hastened,  as  if  in  love  with 
death,  back  to  the  scene  of  his  sufierings  and  his  toils.* 

*  Of  tlie  Jesuit  missionaries  in  Canada  not  a  few  earned  the  honoured  title  of 
martyrs  and  confessors  of  the  faith.  Among  these  were  Peres  Daniel, 
Brebeuf,  Lalemant,  Garnier,  Garreau,  Jogues,  Buteux  and  Chahanet ;  and  Gou- 
pil,  Brul^  and  Lalande,  lay  lahourers  ;  who  died  by  violence  in  the  service  of  the 
mission.  De  Noue  was  frozen  to  death  in  the  snow ;  and  Bressani,  Chatelaine, 
Chaumouot,  Couture,  and  others,  endured  tortures  far  worse  than  death. 


84  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 


CHAPTER  Vn. 

THE  WILDERNESS  MISSIONS. 

The  Huron  Mission  —  Br^beuf,  Lalemant,  Daniel,  Davost  —  Trials  and  Triumphs 
of  the  Missionaries  —  The  Mission  of  Ste.  Marie  —  Iroquois  Massacre  and 
Christian  Martyrdom — A  Winter  of  Horrors  — Destruction  of  the  Huron  Mis- 
sion, 1648-1649  —  Iroquois  Ravages  —  The  Onondaga  Mission  planted,  1656  — 
A  menaced  Massacre  —  Mission  abandoned,  1658  —  A  masterly  Ruse  —  Dulac 
des  Ormeaux  —  A  brave  Defence — The  Thermopylaj  of  Canada  —  D'Ailleboust, 
Do  Lauson,  D'Argensou,  D'Avaugour,  successive  Governors  —  The  Abb^ 
Laval,  first  Vicar  Apostolic  —  The  Liquor  Traffic  —  Charter  of  the  Hundred 
Associates  annulled,  1663  —  Earthquakes. 

THE  region  between  Georgian  Bay  and  Lake  Simcoe,  which 
is  now  a  rich  agricultural  district,  was,  two  centuries  and 
a  half  ago,  the  home  of  the  numerous  and  powerful  Huron  nation 
of  Indians.  Much  of  this  region  is  still  covered  with  what  seems 
to  be  a  virgin  forest,  yet  the  plough  and  the  axe  of  the  pioneer 
often  bring  to  light  the  relics  of  a  former  population,  concern- 
ing whom  local  tradition  is  silent,  and  of  whom  the  lingering 
red  men  of  the  present  know  nothing  Yet  in  the  pages  of 
history  live  the  records  of  this  lost  race,  written  with  a  fidelity 
and  vigour  that  rehabilitate  the  past,  and  bring  us  face  to  face 
with  this  extinct  nation.  The  forty  annual  volumes  of  Bela- 
tions  des  Jesuiles  contain  a  minute  and  graphic  account  by  men 
of  scholastic  training,  keen  insight,  and  cultivated  powers  of 
observation,  of  the  daily  life,  the  wars  and  conflicts,  the  social, 
and  especially  the  religious  condition,  of  this  strange  people. 
As  we  read  these  quaint  old  pages,  we  are  present  at  the  fire- 
sides and  the  festivals  of  the  Huron  nation ;  we  witness  their 
superstitious  rites  and  usages,  their  war  and  medicine  dances, 
and  their  funeral  customs ;  and,  at  length,  as  the  result  of  the 
pious  zeal  of  the  Jesuit  missionaries,  their  general  adoption  of 
Christianity  and  their  celebration  of  Christian  worship. 

In  the  region  between  the  Georgian  Bay,  Lake  Simcoe,  and 


TEE  WILDERNESS  MISSIONS.  85 

the  river  Severn,  in  the  year  1639,  were  no  less  than  thirty- 
two  Huron  villages,  with  an  estimated  population  of  about 
thirty  thousand.  These  villages  were  not  mere  squalid  collec- 
tions of  wigwams,  but  consisted  of  well-built  dwellings,  about 
thirty  or  thirty-five  feet  high,  as  many  wide,  and  sometimes 
thirty  and  even  a  hundred  yards  long.  They  were  generally 
well  fortified  by  a  ditch,  rampart,  and  three  or  four  rows  of 
palisades,  and  sometimes  had  flanking  bastions  which  covered 
the  front  with  a  cross-fire.  The  inhabitants  were  not  mere 
hunting  nomads,  but  an  agricultural  people,  who  laid  up  ample 
stores  of  jDro visions,  chiefly  Indian  corn,  for  their  maintenance 
during  the  winter. 

As  early  as  1626,  Jean  de  Brebeuf,  the  apostle  of  the 
Hurons,  had  visited,  and  for  three  years  remained  among  these 
savage  tribes.  On  Kirk's  conquest  of  Quebec  he  was  recalled, 
but  in  1634,  accompanied  by  Peres  Daniel  and  Davost,  he 
returned  under  a  savage  escort  to  the  temporarily  abandoned 
mission.  By  a  tortuous  route  of  nine  hundred  miles  up  the 
Ottawa,  and  through  Lake  Nipissing,  French  River,  and  the 
Georgian  Bay,  they  reached  the  Bay  of  Penetanguishene. 
Over  five-and-thirty  portages,  sometimes  several  miles  long, 
often  steep  and  rugged,  through  tangled  forests  and  over  sharp 
rocks  that  lacerated  their  naked  feet,  the  missionary  pioneers 
helped  to  bear  their  bark  canoes  and  their  contents.  Fifty 
times  they  had  to  plunge  into  rapids,  and,  wading  or  stumbling 
over  bowlders  in  the  rocky  channel,  to  drag  the  laden  boats 
against  an  arrowy  stream.  With  drenched  and  tattered  gar- 
ments, with  weary  and  fasting  frames,  with  bruised  and  man- 
gled feet,  stung  by  mosquitoes  and  venomous  insects,  they  had 
to  sleep  on  the  damp  earth  o^r  naked  rock.  "  But  amid  it  all," 
writes  Brebeuf,  "  my  soul  enjoyed  a  sublime  contentment, 
knowing  that  all  I  suflered  was  for  God."*  Separated  from 
his  companions  and  abandoned  by  his  perfidious  escort,  Brebeuf 
ofibred  himself  and  all  his  labours  to  God  for  the  salvation  of 

*  "Mon  dme  ressentoit  de  tr^s-grands  contentmens,  consid^rant  que  ie 
suflfrois  pour  Dieu."— Brebeuf,  Relation  des  Hiirons,  1G35,  i).  26. 


86  HISTORY  OF  CAY  AD  A. 

these  poor  savages,*  and  pressed  through  the  woods  to  the  scene 
of  his  former  toil.  He  found  that  Brule,  a  fellow-countryman, 
had  been  cruelly  murdered  in  his  absence,  and,  with  prophetic 
instinct,  anticipated  the  same  fate  for  himself,  but  desired  only 
that  it  might  be  in  advancing  the  glory  of  God.  Davost  and 
Daniel  soon  after  arrived,  a  mission  house  and  chapel  were 
built,  and  the  latter  decorated  with  a  few  pictures,  images,  and 
sacred  vessels,  brought  with  much  trouble  over  the  long  and 
difficult  route  from  Quebec.  Here  the  Christian  altar  was 
reared,  surpliced  priests  chanted  the  ancient  litanies  of  the 
Church,  whose  unwonted  sounds  awoke  strange  echoes  in  the 
forest  aisles,  and  savage  tribes  were  besought  by  the  death  of 
Christ  and  love  of  Mary  to  seek  the  salvation  of  the  Cross. 

But,  by  weary  years  of  hope  deferred,  the  missionaries'  faith 
was  sorely  tried.  They  toiled  and  preached  and  prayed  and 
fasted,  without  any  apparent  reward  of  their  labour;  the  ram- 
parts of  error  seemed  impregnable..  The  hosts  of  hell  seemed 
leagued  against  them.  The  Indian  "  sorcerers,"  as  the  Jesuits 
called  the  medicine  men,  whom  they  believed  to  be  the  imps  of 
Satan,  if  not,  indeed,  his  human  impersonation,  stirred  up  the 
passions  of  their  tribes  against  the  mystic  medicine  men  of  the 
pale-faces.  These  were  the  cause,  they  alleged,  of  the  fearful 
drought  that  parched  the  land,  of  the  dread  pestilence  that 
consumed  the  people  ;  the  malign  spell  of  their  presence  neu- 
tralized the  skill  of  the  hunter  and  the  valour  of  the  bravest 
warrior.  The  chanting  of  their  sacred  litanies  was  mistaken 
for  a  magic  incantation,  and  the  mysterious  ceremonies  of  the 
mass  for  a  malignant  conjury.  The  cross  was  a  charm  of  evil 
potency,  blasting  the  crops  and  afirighting  the  thunder-bird  that 
brought  the  refreshing  rain. 

The  missionaries  walked  in  the  shadow  of  a  perpetual  peril. 
Often, the  tomahawk  gleamed  above  their  heads  or  a  deadly 
ambush  lurked  for  their  lives.  But  beneath  the  protection  of 
St.  Mary  and  St.   Joseph,   as  they  devoutly   believed,   they 

*  "  M'offris  a  nostre  Seigneur,  avec  tous  nos  petits  travaux,  pour  le  salut  de 
ces  pauvres  peuples." — Br6beuf,  Relation  des  Hurons,  1635,  p.  23. 


THE   WILDERNESS  MISSIONS.  37 

walked  unhurt.  The  murderous  hand  was  restrained,  the 
death-winged  arrow  was  turned  aside ;  undismayed  by  their 
danger,  undeterred  by  lowering  looks  and  muttered  curses,  tlic}^ 
calmly  went  on  their  w\ay  of  mercy.  In  winter  storms  and 
summer  heat,  from  plague-smitten  town  to  town,  they  jour- 
neyed through  the  dreary  forest,  to  administer  their  homely 
,  simples  to  the  victims  of  the  loathsome  small-pox,  to  exhoi-t 
the  dying,  to  absolve  the  penitent,  and,  where  possible,  to 
hallow  with  Christian  rites  the  burial  of  the  dead.  The  wail 
of  a  sick  child,  faintly  heard  through  the  bark  walls  of  an  in- 
fected cabin,  was  an  irresistible  appeal  to  the  missionaries' 
heart.  Heedless  of  the  scowling  glance  or  rude  insult,  they 
would  enter  the  dwelling,  and,  by  stealth  or  guile,  they  would 
administer  the  sacred  rite  which  snatched  an  infant  soul  from 
endless  perdition, — from  the  jaAvs  of  the  ''Infernal  Wolf."* 
They  shared  the  privations  and  discomforts  of  savage  life. 
They  endured  the  torments  of  filth  and  vermin,  of  stifling, 
acrid  smoke,  parching  the  throat  and  inflaming  the  eyes  till  the 
letters  of  the  breviaiy  seemed  written  in  blood.  Often  they 
had  no  privacy  for  devotion  save  in  the  dim  crypts  of  the 
forest,  where,  carving  a  cross  upon  a  tree,  they  chanted  their 
solemn  litanies  till,  gnawed  to  the  bone  by  the  piercing  cold, 
they  returned  to  the  reeldng  hut  and  the  foul  orgies  of  pagan 
superstition. 

Yet  the  hearts  of  the  missionaries  quailed  not ;  they  were 
sustained  by  a  lofty  enthusiasm  that  courted  danger  as  a  con- 
dition of  success.  The  gentle  Lalemant  prayed  that  if  the 
blood  of  the  martyrs  were  the  necessary  seed  of  the  Church, 
its  efiusion  should  not  be  wanting.  Nor  did  the  mission  lack  in 
time  that  dread  baptism.  The  pious  Fathers  believed  that 
jDowers  supernal  and  infernal  fought  for  them  or  against  them 
in  their  assault  upon  the  kingdom  of  Satan.  On  the  side  of 
Christ,  His  Virgin  Mother,  and  the  blessed  Gospel  were  legions 

*  "  Ce  loup  infernal."  Tliiis,  as  they  phrased  it,  the  dying  infants  were 
changed  "from  little  savages  to  little  angels."  Of  a  thousand  baptisms  in  1G39, 
all  hilt  twenty  -were  baptized  in  immediate  danger  of  death.  Two  hundred 
and  sixty  were  infants,  and  many  more  quite  young. 


88  HISTORY   OF  CANADA. 

of  angels  and  the  swordcd  seraphim.  Opposed  to  them  were 
all  the  powers  of  darkness,  aided  by  those  imps  of  the  pit,  the 
dteaded  "  sorcerers,"  whom  Satan  clothed  with  vicarious  skill 
to  baffle  the  efforts  of  the  missionaries  and  the  prayers  of  the 
holy  saints.  Foul  fiends  haunted  the  air,  and  their  demoniac 
shrieks  or  blood-curdling  laughter  could  be  heard  in  the  wailing 
night-wind,  or  in  the  howling  of  the  wolves  down  the  dim 
forest-aisles.  More  dreadful  still,  assuming  lovely  siren  forms, 
they  assailed  the  missionary  on  the  side  of  his  human  weak- 
ness ;  but  at  the  holy  sign  of  the  cross  the  baneful  spell  was 
broken — the  tempting  presence  melted  into  air.  * 

Yet,  with  these  intensely  realistic  conceptions  of  their  ghostly 
foes,  the  Jesuits  shrank  not  from  the  conflict  with  Hell  itself. 
Emparadised  in  beatific  vision,  they  beheld  the  glorious  palace 
of  the  skies  prepared,  a  heavenly  voice  assured  them,  for  those 
who  dwelt  in  savage  hovels  for  the  cause  of  God  on  earth. 
Angelic  visitants,  in  visions  of  the  night,  cheered  their  lonely 
vigils,  and  enbraved  their  souls  for  living  martjrrdom.f 

Such  enthusiasm  as  that  of  these  impassioned  devotees  was 
not  without  its  unfailing  reward.  Inveterate  prejudice  was 
overcome,  bitter  hostility  was  changed  to  tender  affection,  and 
the  worn  and  fiided  black  cassock,  the  cross  and  rosary  hanging 
from  the  girdle,  and  the  wide-brimmed  hat  of  the  Jesuit  mis- 
sionary became  the  objects  of  loving  regard  instead  of  the 
symbols  of  a  dreaded  spiritual  power.  The  Indians  abandoned 
their  cruel  and  cannibal  practices.  Many  of  them  received 
Christian  baptism.  In  the  rude  forest  sanctuary  Avas  broken  to 
savage  neophytes  the  sacred  bread  which  the  crowned  monarchs 
of  Europe  received  from  the  hands  of  mitred  priests  beneath 
cathedral  domes. 

The  little  children  were  taught  to  repeat  the  Ave,  the  Credo, 
and  the  Pater  Ifoster.     Rude  natures  were  touched  to  human 


*  Eagueneau,  Eelatlon  dcs  Harons,  1649,  p.  24.  One  chapter  of  the  Eclations  is 
headed  Bii  regne  de  Satan  en  ces  contrees,  which  the  simple  Fathers  designated 
the  very  fortress  and  donjon-lceep  of  demons — une  des  principales  forteresses, 
et  comme  tin  donjon  des  Demons. 

t  ReUilon,  1G49,  p.  24. 


THE   WILDERNESS  MISSIONS.  89 

tenderness  and  pity  by  the  pathetic  story  of  a  Saviour's  love  ; 
and  lawless  passions  were  restrained  by  the  dread  menace  of 
eternal  flames.  Savage  maimers  and  miholy  pagan  rites  gave 
way  to  Christian  decorum  and  pious  devotion,  and  the  implac- 
able red  men  learned  to  pray  for  their  enemies.* 

The  scattered  missionaries  were  reinforced  by  pious  recruits 
drawn  across  the  sea  by  an  impassioned  zeal  that  knew  no 
abatement,  even  unto  death.  At  almost  every  Indian  town  Avas 
a  mission  established  and  consecrated  by  some  holy  name. 
Thus  in  the  northern  half  of  what  is  now  the  county  of  Simcoe, 
were  the  missions  of  St.  Michel,  St.  Joseph,  St.  Jean,  St. 
Jean  Baptiste,  St.  Louis,  St.  Denys,  St.  Antoine,  St.  Charles, 
St.  Ignace,f  St.  Francois  Xavier,  Ste.  Marie,  Ste.  Anne,  Ste. 
Agnes,  Ste.  Catherine,  Ste.  Cecile,  St.  Genevieve,  Ste.  Made- 
leine, Ste.  Therese,  and  several  others.  The  most  important 
of  these  was  that  of  Ste.  Marie,  established  in  1640,  on  a  small 
stream,  now  known  as  the  river  IVye,  which  flows  into  Glouces- 
ter Bay,  itself  an  inlet  of  the  Georgian  Bay,  not  far  from  the 
present  town  of  Penetanguishene.  The  outlines  of  the  fortifi- 
cation, for  it  was  both  fort  and  mission,  may  still  be  traced 
amid  the  forest,  which  has  long  since  overgrown  the  spot.  A 
wall  of  combined  masonry  and  palisades,  flanked  by  bastions  at 
the  angles,  enclosed  a  space  of  some  thirty  by  sixty  yards,  con- 
taining a  church,  a  mission  residence,  a  kitchen,  and  a  refectory. 
"Without  the  walls  were  a  large  house  for  Indian  visitors,  a 
hospital  for  the  sick,  and  a  cemetery  for  the  dead.  Sometimes 
as  many  as  sixty  white  men  were  assembled  at  the  mission, 

*  That,  in  some  instances  at  least,  tlie  conversion  of  the  Indians  "was  not  a 
merely  nominal  one,  bnt  a  radical  change  of  disposition,  is  evidenced  by  the 
follo-sviug  prayer  of  a  Huron  tribe  for  their  hereditary  foes,  the  cruel  Iroquois: 
"Pardon,  O  Lord,  those  who  jiursue  us  with  fury,  who  destroy  us  with  such 
rage.  Open  their  blind  eyes ;  malce  them  to  know  Thee  and  to  love  Thee,  and 
then,  being  Thy  friends,  they  will  also  be  ours,  and  we  shall  together  be  Thy 
children."  Vincent,  Belatlon,  1645,  p.  16.  A  more  signal  triumph  of  grace  over 
the  implacable  hate  of  the  Indian  nature  it  is  difficult  to  conceive.  "  Let  us 
strive,"  exclaimed  another  convert,  "  to  make  the  whole  world  embrace  the 
faith  in  Jesi:s." 

t  The  frequency  of  this  designation,  throughout  the  whole  of  Xew  France, 
attests  the  veneration  in  which  the  founder  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  was  held. 
12 


90  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

among  whom  were  eight  or  ten  soldiers,  as  many  hired  labom*- 
ers,  about  a  score  of  men  serving  without  pay,  and  as  many 
j)riests ;  most  of  the  latter,  however,  were  generally  engaged 
in  the  various  out-missions.  The  demands  upon  the  hospitality 
of  Ste.  Marie  were  very  great.  As  many  as  six  thousand 
Christian  Indians  were  lodged  and  fed  in  a  single  year.  But 
the  Fathers  bestowed  such  care  on  agriculture,  sometimes  them- 
selves working  with  spade  and  mattock,  that  in  1648  they  had 
provisions  laid  up  sufficient  for  three  years.  They  had  also  a 
considerable  quantity  of  live-stock,  including  fowls,  swine,  and 
even  horned  cattle,  brought  with  infinite  trouble  through  the 
wilderness. 

But  this  prosperit}'  was  destined  to  be  rudely  interrupted, 
and  to  have  a  tragic  close. 

The  terrible  Iroquois  waged  periDctual  war  against  their 
hereditary  foes,  the  Hurons.  Urged  by  implacable  hate,  large 
war  parties  would  travel  on  snow-shoes  through  a  pathless 
forest  for  hundreds  of  miles,  to  burn  and  destroy  the  Huron 
villages,  and  indiscriminately  massacre  their  inhabitants,  not 
merely  the  warriors,  but  the  old  men,  the  women,  the  little 
children.  No  distance  was  too  great,  no  perils  too  formidable, 
if  they  might  only  glut  their  thirst  for  Huron  blood.  Even 
single  individuals  lurked  for  weeks  near  the  walls  of  Quebec 
or  Montreal,  for  the  opportunity  to  win  a  Huron  scalp.  The 
ubiquitous  and  blood-thirsty  wretches  infested  the  forest,  lay 
in  ambush  at  the  portages  of  the  Ottawa  and  St.  Lawrence, 
and  sprang,  like  a  tiger  on  his  prey,  on  the  straggling  parties 
of  their  foes. 

This  tempest  of  heathen  rage,  in  1648  was  let  loose  on  the 
Christian  missions.  The  storm  burst  on  the  frontier  village  of 
St.  Joseph,  situated  not  far  from  the  present  town  of  Barrie, 
on  the  morning  of  July  4th.  This  village  had  two  thousand 
inhabitants,  and  was  well  fortified,  but  most  of  the  warriors 
were  absent  at  the  hunt,  or  on  distant  journeys.  Pere  Daniel, 
who  for  fourteen  years  had  here  laboured  in  the  Gospel,  arrayed 
in  the  vestments  of  his  olEce  had  just  finished  the  celebration 
of  the  mass  in  the  crowded  mission  chapel,  when  the   dread 


THE   WILDERXESS  MISSIONS.  91 

wanvlioop  of  the  Iroquois  was  heard.  The  painted  savages 
rushed  through  the  unprotected  openings  in  the  palisade,  mur- 
dering all  Avhom  they  met.  Unable  to  baptize  separately  the 
multitude  who,  hitherto  impenitent,  now  sought  this  ordinance, 
Pere  Daniel  dipped  his  handkerchief  in  water  and,  shaking  it 
over  the  terrified  crowd,  exclaimed:  "My  brethren,  to-day 
we  shall  be  in  Heaven."  *  Absolving  the  dying,  and  baptizing 
the  penitent,  he  refused  to  escape.  "  Fly,  brothers,"  he  cried 
to  his  flock.  "I  will  die  here.  AVe  shall  meet  again  in 
Heaven."  f  Boldly  fronting  the  foe,  he  received  in  his  bosom 
a  sheaf  of  arrows,  and  a  ball  from  a  deadly  arquebuse.  "  He 
fell,"  says  the  contemporary  chronicler,  "  murmuring  the  name 
of  Jesus,  and  yielding,  joyously,  his  soul  to  God, —  truly  a 
good  shepherd,  who  gave  his  life  for  his  sheep."  % 

Seven  hundred  persons,  mostly  women  or  children,  were 
captured  or  killed.  The  body  of  the  proto-martyr  of  the 
Huron  jNIission  was  burned  to  ashes,  but  his  intrepid  spirit,  it 
was  believed,  appeared  again  among  the  living,  animating  their 
hearts  to  endure  unto  the  bitter  end.  And  not  for  one  moment 
did  they  quail.  "We  cannot  hope,"  writes  Ragueneau,  his 
companion  in  toil  and  tribulation,  ' '  but  to  follow  in  the  burning 
path  wliich  he  has  trod,  but  we  will  gladly  suffer  for  the  glory 
of  the  Master  whom  we  serve." 

The  next  act  of  this  tragedy  opens  eight  months  later,  in  the 
early  spring  of  1649.  A  thousand  Iroquois  warriors  had,  dur- 
ing the  winter,  made  their  way  from  near  the  Hudson  Eiver, 
round  the  head  of  Lake  Ontario,  and  across  the  western  penin- 
sula to  the  Huron  country.  The  object  of  attack  was  the  vil- 
lage of  St.  Ignace,  situated  about  ten  miles -northwest  of  the 
present  town  of  Orillia.  It  was  completely  surprised  in  the 
early  dawn  of  March  16th,  and  taken  almost  without  a  blow.§ 

*  "Mes  Frferes,  nous  serons  aujourdliuy  clans  le  Ciel."  —  Ragueneau,  Eelation 
dcs  Uurons,  1G49,  p.  3. 

t  "  Fiiycz,  mes  Frferes.  Potir  moy,  ie  dois  mourir  icy;  nous  nous  reverrons 
dans  le  Ciel." — Ih.,  p.  4. 

X  "  II  tomba  pronongant,  le  nom  de  Jdsus,  en  reudaut  lieureusement  son  time 
a  Dieu,  vraymeut  un  Ibon  Pasteur,  qui  expose  et  son  ame  et  sa  vie  pour  le  salut 
de  son  troupeau." — Ih.,  p.  4. 

$  "  Quasi  sans  coup  ferir." — Ih.,  p.  10. 


92  HISTORY  OF  CAXADA. 

All  the  inhabitants  were  massacred,  or  reserved  for  cruelties 
more  terrible  than  death,  save  three  fugitives,  who  tied,  half- 
naked,  across  the  snow  to  the  neighbouring  town  of  St.  Louis, 
about  three  piiles  off.  Most  of  the  inhabitants  of  St.  Louis 
had  time  to  escape  before  the  attack  of  the  Iroquois,  but  about 
eighty  Huron  warriors  made  a  stand  for  the  defence  of  their 
homes.  With  them  remained  the  two  Jesuit  missionaries,  Jean 
de  Brebeuf  and  Gabriel  Lalemant,  who,  scorning  to  fly,  cliose 
the  point  of  danger  among  their  flock,  standing  in  the  breach, 
the  one  baptizing  the  catechumens,  the  other  absolving  the 
neopliytes.*  The  toT\Ti  was  speedily  taken  and  burned.  The 
Jesuits,  however,  were  not  immediately  killed,  "being  re- 
served for  a  more  glorious  crown,"!  but  were,  with  the  other 
captives,  driven  before  their  exulting  conquerors  back  to  St. 
Ignace. 

Now  began  a  scene  of  fiendish  torture.  The  missionaries, 
stripped  naked,  were  compelled  to  run  the  gauntlet  through  a 
savage  mob,  frenzied  with  cruelty,  drunk  with  blood.  They 
received  a  perfect  storm  of  blows  on  every  part  of  the  body. 
"  Children,"  said  Brebeuf  to  his  fellow  captives,  "  let  us  look  to 
God.  Let  us  remember  that  He  is  the  witness  of  our  suffer- 
ings, that  He  will  be  our  exceeding  great  reward.  I  feel  for 
you  more  than  for  myself.  But  endure  with  courage  the  little 
that  remains  of  these  torments.  They  will  end  with  our  lives, 
but  the  glory  that  follows  shall  continue  forever." 

The  Iroquois,  maddened  to  fury,  tore  off  the  nails  of  their 
victims,  pierced  their  hands,  lacerated  their  flesh.  Brebeuf,  of 
brawny  frame,  and  iron  thews,  and  dauntless  bearing  —  the  Ajax 
of  the  Huron  Mission  —  was  the  especial  object  of  their  rage. 
On  him  they  wi'cakcd  their  most  exquisite  tortures.  They  cut 
off  his  lips,  they  seared  his  throat  and  bleeding  gums,  they 
hung  a  collar  of  red-hot  hatchets  around  his  neck.  But  he 
stood  like  a  rock,  unflinching  to  the  last,  without  a  murmur  or 
a  groan,  his    soul  even   then  reposing  on  God,  an  object  of 

*  "L'un  6stoit  a  la  brtclie  baxrtisant  les  catecliumfenes,  I'autre  dormant  I'abso- 
lutiou  aux  ndopliytes."  —  Ragueueau,  Eelation  des  Hurons,  1649,  p.  11. 
t  "  Dieu  les  r&seruoit  a  des  couronnes  bien  plus  grandes." — II). 


THE   WILDERNESS  MISSIONS.  93 

amazement  to  even  savage  stoicism.*  The  gentle  and  delicate 
Lalemant  they  enveloped  in  bark  saturated  with  pitch,  which 
they  lired,  seaming  his  body  with  livid  scars.  As  the  stifling 
wreaths  of  smoke  arose,  he  cried,  "  We  are  made  a  spectacle  to 
the  world,  to  angels,  and  to  men."  They  then  tore  out  his  eyes, 
and  seared  the  sockets  with  burning  coals.  In  derision  of  the 
rite  of  baptism,  which  the  missionaries  had  so  often  adminis- 
tered to  others,  their  savage  tormentors  poured  boiling  water 
on  their  heads. 

The  dying  martyrs  freely  pardoned  their  foes,  praying  God 
to  lay  not  these  things  to  their  charge.  After  nameless  tor- 
tures, the  human  hyenas  scalped  Brebeuf  while  yet  alive,  hacked 
off  his  feet,  tore  out  his  quivering  heart,  and  drank  his  blood. 
Lalemant  endured  his  sufferings  for  seventeen  hours,  and  died 
by  the  welcome  stroke  of  a  tomahawk.  Brebeuf's  stronger 
frame  succumbed  to  his  more  deadly  wounds  in  less  than  four 
hours. 

The  skull  and  other  relics  of  Brebeuf  are  preserved  at  the 
Hotel  Dieu  at  Quebec,  and  are  said  to  have  wrought  miracles 
of  healing,  as  well  as  the  conversion  of  most  obstinate  heretics  ; 
but  a  more  potent  spell  is  that  of  his  lofty  spirit,  his  noble  life, 
and  his  heroic  death. 

The  night  which  followed  this  deed  of  blood  was  a  night  of 
terror  at  Ste.  Marie,  situated  only  six  miles  distant  from  St. 
Ignace.  All  day  long  the  smoke  of  the  burning  village  of  St. 
Louis  Avas  visible,  and  Iroquois  scouts  prowled,  wolf-like,  near 
the  mission  walls.  All  that  night  and  the  night  following,  the 
little  garrison  of  forty  Frenchmen  stood  at  arms.  In  the  chapel, 
vows  and  prayers,  Avithout  ceasing,  were  offered  up.  The 
Hurons  rallied,  and  attacked  the  Iroquois  in  furious  battle. 
But  their  valour  was  unavailing ;  they  were,  almost  to  a  man, 
cut  off.  The  Iroquois  in  turn,  panic-stricken,  fled  in  haste, 
but  not  without  a  last  act  of  damning  cruelty.  Tying  to  the 
stake  at  St.  Ignace,  the  prisoners  whom  they  had  not  time  to 

*  "  Souifroit  comme  un  rocher.  Sans  pousser  aucun  cry,  estonnoit  scs  bour- 
reaux  mesmes  ;  saas  doute  que  sou  cceur  reposoit  alors  en  son  Dieu." —  Rague- 
neau,  Melation  des  Hurons,  1649,  p.  14. 


94  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

torture,  they  fired  the  town,  retreating  to  the  music,  delightful 
to  the  savage  ear,  of  the  shrieks  of  human  agony  of  mothers 
and  their  children,  husbands  and  their  wives,  old  age  and  in- 
fancy, writhing  in  the  fierce  flames'  torturing  embrace.  *  The  site 
of  the  hapless  town  may  still  be  traced  in  the  blackened  embers, 
preserved  beneath  the  forest  growth  of  over  two  centuries. 

The  mission  was  wrecked.  The  Hurons  were  scattered. 
Their  towns  were  abandoned,  burnt,  or  destroyed,  and  them- 
selves fugitives  from  a  wrathful  foe.  "  "We  are  counted  as  sheep 
for  the  slaughter,"  writes  the  pious  Eagueneau.  The  Fathers 
resolved  to  transfer  the  missions  to  the  Grand  Manitoulin, 
where  they  might  gather  again  their  scattered  flock,  free  from 
the  attacks  of  their  enemies.  They  unhappily  changed  their 
destination  to  Isle  St.  Joseph,  now  kno^^Ti  as  Christian  Island 
(probably  from  tradition  of  its  Jesuit  occupation),  situated 
about  twenty  miles  from  Ste.  Marie,  and  two  or  three  miles 
from  the  mainland.  They  set  fire  to  the  mission  buildings, 
and,  with  sinking  hearts,  saw  in  an  hour  the  labours  of  ten 
years  destroyed.  On  a  rude  raft,  near  sunset,  on  the  14th 
of  June,  they  embarked,  about  forty  whites  in  all,  with 
all  their  household  goods  and  treasures,  and,  after  several  days, 
reached  Isle  St.  Joseph.  They  built  a  new  mission-fortress, 
the  remains  of  which  may  still  be  seen.  Here,  by  winter,  were 
assembled  six  or  eight  thousand  wretched  Hurons,  dependent 
upon  the  charity  of  the  mission.  The  Fathers  had  collected 
five  or  six  hundred  bushels  of  acorns,  which  were  served  out  to 
the  perishing  Indians,  and  boiled  with  ashes  to  take  away  their 
bitter  taste.  But  the  good  priests  found  compensation  in  the 
thought  that  man  shall  not  live  by  bread  alone  ;  and  they  sought 
unweariedly  to  break  unto  the  multitude  the  bread  of  life.  In 
their  extremity  the  famishing  creatures  were  fain  to  eat  the 
carrion  remains  of  dogs  and  foxes,  and,  more  horrible  still, 
even  the  bodies  of  the  dead. 

*  "  Prenans  plaisir  a  leiir  depart,  de  S9  repaistre  des  cris  espouuantaLles  que 
poiissoieut  ces  pauvres  victimes  au  milieu  de  ces  flammes,  ou  des  enfans  gril. 
loient  ^  cost^s  de  leurs  nitires,  ou  uu  mary  voyoit  sa  femme  rostir  aupr^a  de 
soy,"  —  Eagueneau,  Relation  dcs  Hurons,  1649,  p.  13. 


THE    WILDERNESS  MISSIONS.  95 

Before  spring,  harassed  by  attacks  of  the  Iroquois  and 
wasted  by  pestilence,  half  of  the  number  had  died.  Day  by 
day  the  foithful  missionaries  visited  the  sick,  exhorted  the  liv- 
ing, absolved  the  dying,  and  celebrated  the  sacraments  in  the 
crowded  chapel,  which  was  daily  filled  ten  or  twelve  times. 
Night  by  night,  in  frost  and  snow  and  bitter  storm,  through  the 
livelong  hours  the  sentry  paced  his  weary  round. 

During  the  winter  the  Iroquois  ravaged  the  mainland,  burn- 
ing villages  and  slaughtering  the  inhabitants.  St.  Jean,  a  town 
of  some  six  hundred  families,  which  had  hitherto  resisted 
attack  amid  the  fastnesses  of  the  Blue  Mountains,  not  far  from 
the  present  town  of  Collingwood,  was  taken  and  destroyed. 
Here  Pere  Gamier,  the  scion  of  a- noble  family  of  Paris,  shared 
the  heroic  fate  of  Daniel,  the  first  martyr  of  the  mission.  He 
was  slain  in  the  act  of  absolving  a  dying  Indian. 

"With  the  opening  spring,  the  pinchings  of  hunger  drove  the 
starving  Hurons  from  Isle  St.  Joseph  to  the  mainland.  The 
relentless  Iroquois  were  awaiting  them.  Of  the  large  party 
who  crossed,  but  one  man  escaped  to  tell  the  tale  of  blood. 
The  whole  country  was  a  land  of  horror,  a  place  of  massacre.* 
There  was  nothing  but  despair  on  every  side.  More  than  ten 
thousand  Hurons  had  already  perished.  Famine,  or  an  enemy 
more  cruel  still,  everywhere  confronted  them.  They  resolved 
to  forsake  their  country,  and  to  fly  to  some  distant  region,  in 
order  to  escape  extermination  by  their  foes.  Many  of  them 
besought  the  Jesuits  to  lead  them  to  an  asylum  beneath  the 
guns  of  Quebec,  where  they  might  worship  God  in  peace. 
The  Fathers  consulted  much  together,  but  more  with  God,-f- 
and  engaged  in  prayer  for  forty  consecutive  hours.  They 
resolved  to  abandon  the  mission.  Dread  of  the  Iroquois  has- 
tened their  retreat. 

*«  It  was  not  without  tears,"  writes  Ragueneau,  "  that  we  left 
the  country  of  our  hearts  and  hoijes,  which,  already  rod  with 
the  blood  of  our  brethren,  promised  us  a  like  happiness,  opened 

*  "  N'estoit  plus  qn'iiue  terre  d'  liorreur,  et  uii  lieu  do  massacre."  —  Rague- 
neau, Eclation  dcs  Hurons,  1650,  p.  22. 
t  "  Nous  cousultious  ensemble,  mais  plus  eucore  avec  Dieu." — Ih. 


96  niSTORY  OF  CANADA. 

for  us  the  gate  of  heaven."*  The  pious  toils  of  fifteen  years 
seemed  frustrated,  but,  with  devout  submission,  the  Father 
Superior  writes,  "  Whom  the  Lord  loveth  He  chasteneth." 
They  were  accompanied  in  their  retreat,  by  way  of  French 
Kiver,  Lake  Nipissing,  and  the  Ottawa,  by  three  hundred 
Christian  Hurons,  the  sad  relics  of  a  nation  once  so  populous,  f 
Along  the  shores  where  had  recently  dwelt  eight  or  ten  thou- 
sand of  their  countrymen  not  one  remained.  |  The  little  band 
of  fugitives  sought  refuge  on  the  Island  of  Orleans,  near 
Quebec.  But  even  here  they  were  pursued  by  the  undying 
hate  of  the  Iroquois,  who  again  and  again  attacked  the  mission 
beneath  the  very  guns  of  the  fort.  The  remaining  Hurons 
were  dispersed  in  scattered  groups  far  over  the  bleak  northern 
wastes  from  the  Saguenay  to  the  Mississippi,  and  eventually  dis- 
a]3peared  as  a  distinct  race.  One  band  sought  the  aid  of  the 
powerful  Ojibways,  and  confronted  their  merciless  foe  on  the 
shores  of  Lake  Superior,  where  a  great  battle  was  fought  on 
the  spot  still  known  as  Iroquois  Point,  otherwise  "  the  place  of 
Iroquois  bones."  A  few  families,  the  remnant  of  the  once 
powerful  Huron  nation,  still  linger  at  Lorette,  near  Quebec. 

After  these  sanguinary  triumphs,  the  incursions  of  the  Iro- 
quois on  the  St.  Lawrence  settlements  incr-eased  in  frequency 
and  audacity.  From  1650  to  1660,  a  perfect  reign  of  terror 
prevailed.  Not  a  year,  and  scarce  a  month,  passed  without  an 
attack.  The  Iroquois  swarmed  in  the  forests  and  on  the  rivers. 
They  lay  in  wait,  at  times  for  weeks,  near  the  forts,  thirsting 
for  French  or  Huron  blood.  They  entered  the  settlements, 
and  killed  and  scalped  the  inhabitants  on  their  own  thresholds. 
Every  man  carried  his  life  in  his  hand.  The  peasants  could 
not  work  in  the  fields  unless  strongly  armed  and  in  a  numerous 
body.  The  inhabitants  of  the  frontier  settlements  were  fre- 
quently obliged  to  take  refuge  in  strong  block-houses,  like  that 
shown  in  the  engraving.  Ville  Marie  lost  in  one  month  by 
these  incursions  over  one  hundred  men,  two-thirds  of  whom 

*  Belations,  1650,  p.  26. 

t  "  Tristes  reliqiies  d'uue  nation  autrefois  si  peupl6e." — Ih. 

t  "  II  n'en  restoit  pas  mesme  un  seul.'' — Ih. 


THE   WILDERNESS  MISSIONS.  97 

were  French,  the  rest  Algouquins.     Mademoiselle  Mance  and 
the  nuns  of  the  Hotel  Dieu  found  abundant  employment  iu 


FRONTIER   lU.ULK-IlOUSE,   BUILT  ABOUT   1645. 

mirsing  the  wounded  defenders  of  the  mission.  These  ladies, 
well  boru  and  delicately  nurtured,  espoused  poverty  and  toil 
and  suffering  for  the  glory  of  God  and  the  spiritual  welfare  of 
the  thankless  savages.  So  bleak  was  their  chamber  that  their 
coarse  bread  froze  on  the  table  before  them,  and  the  snow, 
after  a  storm,  Avas  removed  from  the  floor  by  shovelfuls.  The 
savages  were  known  to  crouch  in  the  garden  all  night  for  a 
chance  to  tomahawk  the  "  white  girls,"  as  they  came  forth  in 
the  morning  to  attend  to  their  pigs  and  fowls.  When  an  alarm 
of  attack  was  given,  one  would  climb  the  belfry  to  ring  the 
tocsin,  calling  together  the  defenders  of  the  mission.  Others 
Knelt  before  the  altar  in  prayer,  or  hid  in  their  cells,  exi^ecting 
that  their  last  hour  had  come. 

Le  INIaitre,  a  Sulpitian  priest,  went  out  with  the  labourers  to 
watch  for  the  enemy  while  they  worked  in  the  fields.  Seeing 
no  danger,  he  took  out  his  breviary  to  read  the  prayers  for  the 
day.  Absorbed  in  his  pious  office,  he  walked  into  an  ambus- 
cade of  Iroquois.  Scorning  to  fly,  he  shouted  the  alarm  to  the 
13 


98  HISTORY  OF  CAXADA. 

labourers,  and,  to  give  them  time  to  escape,  himself  alone  con- 
fronted the  savage  crew.  The  wretches  hacked  off  his  head, 
and  carried  it  as  a  trophy  to  their  distant  villages.  Vignal,  a 
fellow-priest,  two  months  later,  with  thirteen  men,  went  to 
bring  stone  from  the  Isle  a  la  Pierre,  nearly  opposite  Montreal, 
for  the  convent  they  were  building  at  the  mission.  As  they 
landed,  they  were  surprised  by  Iroquois.  The  priest  was  killed 
and  cooked  and  eaten  in  the  presence  of  his  companions,  who 
were  dragged  off  to  death  or  torture  in  the  INIohawk  towns. 

Tlie  Onondagas,  Senecas,  Cayugas,  and  Oneidas,  having 
engaged  in  war  with  the  Eries,  a  tribe  situated  on  the  borders 
of  the  lake  whose  name  they  bore,  sought  the  alliance  of  the 
French,  and  demanded  the  jjlanting  of  a  mission  within  their 
borders.  To  grant  or  to  refuse  their  request  was  almost 
equally  perilous.  The  Governor  held  a  council  on  the  subject. 
The  Jesuits,  full  of  zeal,  gave  their  voice  for  the  establishment  of 
1656.  the  mission.  "  The  blood  of  the  martyrs  is  the  seed  of 
the  Church,"  exclaimed  one  of  them,  "  and,  if  we  die  by  the 
fires  of  the  Iroquois,  we  shall  have  won  eternal  life  by  snatching 
souls  from  the  fires  of  hell."  They,  therefore,  decided  to  plant 
a  mission  among  the  Onondagas,  in  the  heart  of  the  Iroquois 
country,  with  the  threefold  o1)ject  of  curbing  tlieir  hostile  dis- 
position, of  winning  new  converts  to  the  Cross,  and  of  securing 
the  fur  trade  from  the  growing  interference  of  the  Dutch.  In 
a  temporary  lull  of  hostilities,  Pere  Lo  Moyne  and  three  other 
priests  were  selected  to  tread  the  pathway  already  reddened  by 
the  blood  of  Jogues,  the  previous  envoy.  They  were  accom- 
panied by  ten  soldiers  and  forty  settlers.  The  Mohawks,  jeal- 
ous of  the  increased  influence  with  the  French  which  the 
mission  would  give  the  other  tribes  of  the  confederacy,  tried 
to  intercept  the  party,  failing  in  which  they  ravaged  the  banks 
of  the  Ottawa  and  St.  Lawrence,  and  prowled  around  the  very 
walls  of  Montreal  and  Quebec.  From  the  Island  of  Orleans 
they  carried  off  eighty  Ilurons,  who  were  under- the  protection 
of  the  French,  and,  in  contempt  of  the  latter,  made  their 
prisoners  dance  and  sing  as  they  paddled  their  bark  canoes 
beneath  the  very  guns  of  the  Castle  of  St.  Louis. 


THE   WILDERXESS  MISSIOXS.  99 

The  Onoudaga  Mission  was  planted  on  the  shores  of  the 
beautiful  lake  from  which  it  took  its  name.  Amid  salvos  of 
their  miniature  cannon,  the  chanting  of  the  Te  Deu7n,  and  the 
celebration  of  the  mass,  the  Jesuits,  full  of  faith,  took  posses- 
sion of  the  country,  in  which  they  held  their  lives  on  the  suf- 
ferance of  treacherous  savages.  They  prosecuted  with  zeal 
their  evangelistic  work ;  preaching,  exhorting,  and  catechising 
and  baptizing  the  children,  or  professed  converts,  throughout 
the  Iroquois  towns.  Forest  sanctuaries  were  erected,  1657. 
the  sweet  sounds  of  the  Angelus  rang  from  their  tiny  belfries, 
the  images  of  Christ  and  His  Virgin  Mother  were  displayed  on 
the  rustic  altars  to  crowds  of  wondering  spectators.  With  a 
profound  dissimulation,  the  savages  were  contemplating,  all  the 
while,  the  massacre  of  the  entire  mission,  and  an  overwhelming 
invasion  of  Canada  by  the  whole  of  the  confederate  tribes. 
The  Jesuits  were  warned  of  their  danger  by  the  dying  confes- 
sion of  a  converted  Iroquois.  They  hastily  called  in  the 
priests  from  the  outlying  missions,  and  held  an  anxious  council 
in  their  mission-house  by  the  lake,  where  the  whole  colony, 
fifty-three  in  number,  were  assembled.  On  every  side  were 
encamped  their  watchful  and  truculent  enemy,  on  the  alert  both 
day  and  night.  Escape  seemed  impossible.  But  the  Jesuits, 
with  a  dissimulation  even  deeper  than  that  of  their  wily  foe, 
but  which,  under  the  circumstances,  the  sternest  moralist  could 
scarce  condemn,  devised  a  plan  to  outwit  the  wretches  who 
were  thirsting  for  their  blood. 

First,  two  light  batteaux  were  secretly  constructed  in  the 
loft  of  the  mission-house,  for  the  transport  of  the  entire  party 
on  the  neighbouring  lake  and  river.  Then  the  Indians  less. 
were  invited  to  one  of  the  glutton  feasts  at  which,  under  the 
influence  of  a  disgusting  superstition,  they  devour  everything 
placed  before  them  unless  absolved  from  that  duty  by  their 
hosts.  The  Fathers  killed  their  hogs,  and  prepared  a  banquet 
of  unusual  piquancy.  Amid  the  shouting  and  din  of  the  feast, 
the  batteaux  were  conveyed  by  stealth  to  the  lake-side.  When 
the  Indians,  gorged  to  repletion,  had  fallen  into  a  heavy  sleei?, 
or  semi-torpor,   their  hosts   silently  and  swiftly  withdrew, — 


100  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

priests,  soldiers,  and  settlers,  abandoning  everything, — and  be- 
fore morning  were  far  down  the  Oswego  Eiver,  on  their  way  to 
Lake  Ontario.  When  the  baffled  Iroquois  awoke  from  their 
torpor,  the  strange  silence  of  the  mission  surprised  them.  A 
light  March  snow  that  had  fallen,  covered  the  traces  of  the 
escape  of  their  intended  victims.  They  concluded  that  the 
black-robed  sorcerers  must  have  flown  off  through  the  air. 
Pursuit  was  in  vain,  and  the  fugitives,  gliding  down  the  St. 
Lawrence,  with  the  loss  of  three  men  in  the  rapids,  in  due 
course  reached  Montreal  and  Quebec. 

In  1660,  the  confederate  Iroquois  menaced  with  a  fatal  blow 
the  very  existence  of  the  colony.  Twelve  hundred  plumed 
and  painted  warriors  were  on  the  way  to  attack  successively 
the  three  military  jJosts  of  Montreal,  Three  Rivers,  and  Quebec. 
Behind  their  loop-holed  palisades,  the  tremi51ing .  inhabitants 
gathered,  their  hearts  ftiiling  them  for  fear.  The  colony  was 
saved  from  extermination  by  an  act  of  valour  and  devotion,  as 
heroic  as  any  recorded  on  the  page  of  history.  Dulac  des 
Ormeaux,  a  youth  of  twenty-two,  with  sixteen  others,  youth- 
ful like  himself, —  all  of  Montreal, —  resolved  to  save  their 
country,  though  they  perished  in  the  act.  They  made  their 
wills,  confessed,  received  the  sacrament,  and  bade  a  solemn 
farewell  to  their  friends,  like  men  about  to  march  to  death. 
And  so  they  were.  Not  one  returned  alive.  Stemming  the 
swift  current  of  Ste.  Anne,  they  crossed  the  Lake  of  Two  Moun- 
tains, and  took  their  stand  at  the  Long  Sault  rapid,  near  Caril- 
lon, on  the  Ottawa.  Here  they  were  joined  by  forty  Christian 
Hurons  and  four  Algonquins.  They  took  possession  of  an  old 
redoubt,  a  mere  breastwork  of  logs,  and  awaited  the  approach 
of  the  Iroquois.  A  force  of  two  hundred  soon  appeared.  The 
French  and  their  red  allies  strengthened  their  scanty  defence 
with  sod  and  earth,  leaving  twenty  loop-holes  through  which  to 
fire,  and  prepared  for  a  death-struggle  with  their  foe.  For  five 
long  days  and  nights  the  Iroquois  swarmed  around  that  frail 
redoubt,  repulsed  again  and  again  by  its  brave  defenders,  who, 
though  worn  by  hunger,  thirst,  and  want  of  sleep,  fought,  and 
prayed,  and  watched  by  turns.     Iroquois  re-enforcements  now 


THE   WILDERXESS  MISSIOXS.  101 

arrived.  The  Iluroiis,  dismayed  at  tlie  inevitable  result  of  the 
unequal  contest,  deserted  to  the  enemy. 

For  three  days  longer  seven  hundred  ferocious  savages  be- 
leaguered the  crumbling  redoubt,  defied  by  the  score  of  brave 
men  who,  reeling  with  weariness,  kept  their  lone  post  with  the 
courage  of  despair.  The  Iroquois,  having  made  huge  wooden 
shields,  rushed  at  .the  palisades,  and,  crouching  below  the  fire 
of  the  loop-holes,  hacked  furiously  at  the  posts  to  cut  their  way 
through.  They  fired  through  the  loop-holes  on  their  penned  up 
victims,  tore  open  a  breach  in  the  walls,  and  swarmed  within 
the  redoubt.  The  French  fought  with  desperation,  selling  their 
lives  as  dearly  as  possible.  Four  men  alone  were  found  alive. 
Three  of  these  were  mortally  wounded,  and  were  burned  upon 
the  spot.  The  other  was  reserved  to  glut  the  rage  of  his  cap- 
tors with  future  torture.  The  renegade  Ilurons  paid  the  pen- 
alty of  their  treachery  by  their  death,  except  five,  who  escaped 
to  tell  the  tale  of  horror.  But  these  brave  men  died  not  in 
vain.  The  colony  was  saved.  The  bafiled  Iroquois  retired  to 
their  forests  to  nurse  their  wrath  for  a  future  day  of  slaughter. 
The  pass  of  the  Long  Sault  was  the  Thermopylae  of  Canada. 

We  return  to  trace  briefly  the  political  administration  of  New 
France  during  this  period.  In  1G45,  the  company  of  the  Hun- 
dred Associates  had  surrendered  to  the  people  of  the  colony 
the  monopoly  of  the  fur  trade,  but  retaining  its  scigneurial 
rights,  on  certain  conditions  ;  viz.,  the  colonists  were  to  assume 
the  debts  and  responsibilities  of  the  Company  ;  to  man,  equip, 
and  maintain  the  forts  and  other  means  of  defence  ;  ^to  defray 
the  costs  of  civil  government,  as  the  salary  of  the  Governor 
and  other  officials  ;  and  to  pay  the  Company  the  annual  equiva- 
lent of  a  thousand  pounds  of  beaver-skins. 

In  1647,  in  consequence  of  the  centralizing-  policy  of  the 
young  sovereign,  restricting  the  term  of  service  of  colonial 
Governors  to  three  years,  Montmagny  was  re-called,  although 
ho  had  administered  the  afl'airs  of  the  colony  with  distinguished 
ability,  and  M.  D'Ailleboust  was  appointed  his  successor.  The 
new  Governor  had  already  been  five  years  commandant  at 
Three  Rivers,  and  understood  the  wants  of  the  country,  al- 


102  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

though   deficient   in   the  energy   that    characterized    his    two 
predecessors. 

The  Governor  was  assisted  in  his  official  duties  by  a  council, 
in  which  the  Superior  of  the  Jesuits  and  the  Governor  of  Mon- 
treal were  associated  with  himself.  This  council  was  invested 
with  supreme  authority,  judicial,  executive,  and  legislative. 
During  D'Ailleboust's  administration,  an  envoy  arrived  from 
New  England  with  the  proposal  of  a  treaty  of  commerce  and 
amity  between  the  British,  French,  and  Dutch  colonies,  and 
especially  providing  for  their  neutrality  in  all  quarrels  of  the 
mother  countries.  The  French  eagerly  accepted  the  sugges- 
tion, and  dispatched  Father  Druilletes  to  arrange  the  terms  of 
the  treaty.  The  Jesuit,  crossing  with  infinite  toil  the  broken 
country  between  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  headwaters  of  the 
Kennebec,  sailed  down  that  river  to  the  sea,  and  reaching  Bos- 
ton by  an  English  vessel,  became  the  guest  of  the  INIassachusetts 
Colony  where,  by  law,  his  life  was  under  ban.  In  Eliot,  the 
apostle  of  the  New  England  Indians,  he  found  a  kindred  spirit ; 
their  common  missionary  zeal  reconciling,  for  the  time,  their 
antagonistic  creeds. 

The  French  urged,  through  their  envoy,  a  mutual  alliance 
against  the  Iroquois  ;  but  as  these  were  the  friends  of  the  Eng- 
lish, this  stipulation  unhappily  frustrated  the  project,  and  em- 
bittered the  hostility  of  tlie  Iroquois,  who,  supplied  in  increas- 
ing quantities  with  fire-arms  from  Fort  Orange,  continued  to 
wreak  their  rage  upon  the  French. 

In  1651,  M.  De  Lauson,  a  leading  member  of  the  Hundred 
Associates,  succeeded  to  the  government  of  the  distracted 
country.  His  timid  and  vacillating  administration  encouraged 
the  audacity  of  the  Iroquois,  and,  as  we  have  seen,  reduced  the 
colony  to  the  verge  of  destruction.  In  1658,  he  quitted  his 
post  in  disgust,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  Viscount  D'Argenson. 
The  following  year,  the  Abbe  Laval,  a  member  of  the 
1659.  princely  house  of  IMontmorency,  who  afterwards  (in 
1670)  became  the  first  bishop  of  the  colony,  arrived  in  Canada 
as  Vicar  Apostolic.  He  was  a  man  of  intense  zeal  and  devo- 
tion to  the  welfare  of  his  Church.     For  thirty  years  he  swayed 


THE    WILDERNESS  MISSIONS.  103 

tho  religious  destiny  of  the  colony.  His  memory  is  greatly 
revered  by  his  countrymen,  and  the  noble  collegiate  pile  which 
crowns  the  heights  of  Quebec  perpetuates  his  name.  Laval 
had  been  tho  nominee  of  the  Jesuit  party,  and  zealously  pro- 
moted the  interests  of  that  Order.  He  was  soon  involved  in  a 
conflict  with  the  Abbe  Queylus,  Vicar-General  of  Canada,  and 
bead  of  the  Seminary  of  St.  Sulpice  at  Montreal,  which  led  to 
the  expulsion  of  the  latter  from  Canada.  Acrimonious  disputes 
soon  arose,  also,  between  the  bishop  and  successive  Governors, 
on  matters  of  precedence,  and  other  expressions  of  ecclesias- 
tical dignity. 

His  controversy  with  the  bishop,  the  virtual  independence  of 
Montreal,  its  jealousy  of  Quebec,  and  the  insubordination  of 
Maisouneuve,  its  Governor,  so  disgusted  D'Argensou  that  he 
gladly  accepted  his  recall. 

He  was  succeeded  by  the  Baron  D'Avaugour,  a  brave  soldier, 
who  had  served  with  distinction  in  Hungary,  but  who  was  leei. 
a  man  of  a  hasty  and  obstinate  disposition.  Resolved  on  ener- 
getic measures  of  colonial  defence,  he  asked  for  three  thousand 
regular  troops.  The  king  tardily  sent  out  four  hundred,  and 
meanwhile  the  country  was  laid  waste,  and  the  military  posts 
were  practically  in  a  state  of  siege.  The  bluif  soldier  and  the 
aggressive  bishop  were  involved  in  a  continual  discord. 

On  one  subject  of  controversy  the  latter  was  unquestionably 
in  the  right.  The  white  man's  ' '  fire-water  "  had  a  fatal  ftiscina- 
tion  for  the  red  man's  unrestrained  appetite.  The  bishop  and 
the  Jesuit  missionaries  fought  earnestly  against  the  liquor 
traffic .  It  was  denounced  from  the  pulpit  as  hurtful  to  body 
and  soul,  and  its  agents  threatened  with  excommunication,  and, 
indeed,  with  death.  Two  men  were  shot  for  selling  brandy  to 
the  Indians,  and  a  woman  was  imprisoned  for  the  same  crime. 
A  Jesuit  missionary,  interceding  strongly  for  her  pardon, 
D'Avaugour,  probably  opposed  to  this  extreme  severity,  de- 
clared that  if  she  went  unpunished  no  one  else  should  sufier  for 
the  like  offence,  and  to  this  decision  he  obstinately  adhered.  A 
period  of  general  license  now  ensued,  An  indulgence  in 
liquor,  restrained  only  by  the   ability  to  procure  it,  led  to  a 


104  HISTORY  OF  C AX  AD  A. 

frightful  demoralization  of  the  mission,  and  inaugurated  an  era 
of  vice  and  crime,  both  among  the  Indians  and  the  French. 
Laval,  unable  to  restrain  the  flood  of  evil,  sailed  to  France  to 
appeal  to  the  power  of  the  sovereign,  and  demand  the  recall  of 
the  obstinate  Governor. 

Now  ensued  signs  and  wonders  in  the  sky  and  on  the  earth, 
which  were  regarded  as  the  menace  of  Divine  wrath.  *'  Blazing 
serpents,"  writes  one  of  the  Jesuit  Fathers,  "  flew  through  the 
air,  borne  on  wings  of  fire."  A  great  globe  of  flame  w^as  seen,  at 
Montreal,  to  issue  from  the  moon,  with  a  noise  as  loud  as 
thunder,  and  to  disappear  behind  the  shaggy  crest  of  the 
mountain, — probably  a  meteorite  of  unusual  size. 

But  these  were  but  the  prelude  to  a  more  awful  visitation. 
On  the  5th  of  February,  1663,  the  whole  country  was  shaken  by 
a  terrible  earthquake.  Dense  darkness  filled  the  air,  the  thick- 
ribbed  ice  on  the  rivers  was  broken,  springs  were  dried  up,  the 
church  bells  pealed  with  the  rocking  motion,  buildings  tottered, 
the  forest  trembled,  and  portentous  noises  were  heard.  Shocks 
were  repeated  at  intervals  from  February  to  August.  The  ut- 
most consternation  prevailed,  but  happily  no  loss  of  life  oc- 
curred. The  end  of  the  world  was  thought  to  be  at  hand,  and 
a  great  reformation  in  morals,  we  are  assured,  took  place. 

In  this  year,  the  obnoxious  Governor,  D'Avaugour,  was  re- 
called, and  soon  after  died,  fighting  bravely  against  the  Turks 
in  Croatia.  This  date  closes  the  administration  of  the  Hundred 
Associates,  which  had  been  characterized  by  greed,  weakness, 
and  inefficiency  on  the  part  of  the  Company;  by  cruel  and 
bloody  invasion,  wasting,  and  massacre  by  the  Iroquois  ;  by 
the  enthusiastic  zeal,  devotion,  and  heroic  martyrdom  of  the 
Jesuit  missionaries ;  and  by  the  unparalleled  sufi'eriugs  of  the 
colonists. 


105 


CHAPTER  Vni. 


ACADIA. 


La  Tour  and  D'Aulnay,  Lientenants  under  RazilM  — Their  Feuds— La  Tour  and 
Wife  Besieged  at  St.  John  — They  Seek  Aid  from  Boston  — Madame  La 
Tour's  Heroic  Defence  of  St.  John— Its  Capture,  1667  — Perfidy  of  D'Aulnay 
—  His  Death  —  La  Tour  Marries  his  Widow  —  Le  Borgne  —  Ee-couquest  of 
Acadia  by  the  English,  1654  —  It  is  Restored  to  the  French,  1667. 

WE  HOW  return  to  trace  briefly  the  history  of  Acadia,  or 
Nova  Scotia,  as  it  now  began  to  be  called  —  a  history 
full  of  romantic  interest.  By  the  treaty  of  St.  Germain-en- 
Laye,  Acadia  was  restored  to  the  French  Crown,  and  the  less. 
country  was  portioned  out  into  provinces,  under  proprietary 
Governors,  whose  chief  revenue  was  derived  from  the  fur  trade 
and  fisheries.  Eazille,  the  commandant-in-chief,  received  a  grant 
of  the  southern  portion  of  the  peninsula,  and  the  region  contig- 
uous to  the  river  and  bay  of  St.  Croix.  Struck  with  the  beauty 
and  commodious  harbour  of  La  Hove,  on  the  southeast  coast, 
he  there  fixed  his  residence,  built  a  fort,  and  planted  a  consid- 
erable settlement.  Under  him,  as  lieutenants,  were  Charles  la 
Tour,  to  whom  was  assigned  the  rest  of  the  peninsula,  as  far  as 
Causeau  ;  and  the  Seigneur  D'Aulnay  Charnisy,  who  controlled 
the  country  north  and  east  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  to  Gaspe, 
and  the  Kennebec  River. 

On  the  death  of  Razille,  Nicolas  Denys,  Sieur  de  Fronsac, 
who  had  previously  been  associated  with  him  in  trade,  suc- 
ceeded him  as  commandant.  Bitter  strife  now  arose  between 
the  lieutenants,  D'Aulnay  and  La  Tour,  rendered  the  more  in- 
tense by  their  trading  jealousies,  and  by  the  disputed  limits  of 
their  several  domains.  Though  neither  could  occupy  a  tenth 
of  his  own  territory,  each  seemed  in  mortal  dread  of  the  en- 
croachments of  the  other.  This  jealousy  was  increased  by  the 
fact  that  each  held  possession  of  certain  trading-posts  within 
the  country,  under  the  nominal  jurisdiction  of  the  other. 


106  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

D'Auluay,  an  unscrupulous  and  ambitious  man,  attempted  to 
assume  control  over  the  entire  country.  La  Tour's  Huguenot 
antecedents,  and  his  commercial  relations  with  Rochelle,  the 
stronghold  of  French  Protestantism,  were  calculated  to  preju- 
dice his  interests  at  the  French  court.  D'Aulnay,  therefore, 
managed,  through  the  powerful  influence  of  his  patron,  Riche- 
lieu, to  procure  an  order  for  the  arrest  of  La  Tour,  and  for  his 
return  to  France  to  answer  certain  charges  of  malversation 
alleged  against  him.  The  King  revoked  the  commission  of  La 
Tour,  and  fixed,  as  a  limit  between  the  rival  jurisdictions,  the 
Bay  of  Fundy,  and  the  line  joining  the  head  of  the  bay  and 
CapeCanseau.  La  Tour,  denying  the  allegations  of  D'Aulnay, 
refused  to  submit  to  arrest,  and  fortified  himself  at  his  trading- 
post  at  St.  John.  * 

After  the  manner  of  a  medieval  feudal  potentate,  D'Aulnay 
raised  a  force  of  five  hundred  men,  and,  in  the  spring  of  1643, 
appeared  off  the*  mouth  of  the  St.  John  River,  and  closely 
blockaded  La  Tour  in  his  fort.  The  position  of  the  latter  was 
one  of  great  peril.  A  ship  was  daily  expected  from  Rochelle 
with  supplies  for  the  fort,  together  with  a  company  of  a  hun- 
dred and  forty  immigrants.  These  were  in  danger  of  fiilling 
into  the  hands  of  the  blockading  fleet.  The  expected  vessel, 
however,  received  intimation  of  the  danger,  and  under  cover  of 
night  La  Tour  and  his  intrepid  wife  were  conveyed  on  board. 
They  sailed  for  Boston  to  seek  the  aid  of  the  Colony  of  Massa- 
chusetts in  defence  of  their  rights.  A  council  was  held  at 
Boston,  and,  after  the  manner  of  the  Puritans,  recourse  was 
had  to  the  Bible,  for  direction.  Two  very  apposite  passages 
were  adduced  in  opposition  to  intermeddling  in  foreign  strife. f 
Governor  Winthrop,  therefore,  though  not  ill  pleased  to  see 
the  French  weakening  each  other  in  Acadia  by  their  intestine 
strife,  did  not  venture  to  commit  any  overt  act  that  would 
violate  the  peace  then  existing  between  France  and  Great 
Britain.     He  permitted  La  Tour,  however,  to  raise  and  equip 

*  We  use  this  name  by  anticipation,  for  the  purpose  of  giving  a  local  defini- 
tion to  the  events  here  described. 

t  2  Chron.  xix.,  2,  and  Prov.  xxvi.,  17. 


ACADIA.  107 

a  small  naval  and  military  force.  ^The  latter,  therefore,  char- 
tered five  vessels,  mounting  some  forty  pieces  of  cannon  of 
small  size,  and  procured  the  services  of  eighty  volunteers  for 
land  service,  and  fifty  sailors.  This  force,  though  still  less 
than  that  of  D'Aulnay,  was  handled  with  such  skill  that  the 
latter  at  once  raised  the  blockade  and  sought  refuge  under  the 
guns  of  his  own  fort  at  Port  Eoyal.  Here  two  of  his  vessels 
were  wrecked,  and  La  Tour,  who  followed  in  hot  pursuit, 
would  probably  have  reduced  the  fort,  but  that  the  New  Eng- 
land volunteers,  who  had  only  engaged  to  serve  for  sixty  days, 
after  a  short  conflict,  in  which  each  party  lost  three  men,  re- 
turned, before  their  period  of  service  had  expired,  to  Boston. 
D'Aulnay,  intensely  chagrined,  protested  against  the  violation 
of  neutrality  by  the  New  Euglanders,  and  sent  an  agent  to 
Boston,  bearing  his  commission  from  the  King,  and  a  copy  of 
the  warrant  for  the  arrest  of  La  Tour.  A  treaty  of  peace 
was  therefore  agreed  upon  between  D'Aulnay,  representing  the 
King  of  France,  and  the  New  England  colonies,  1644. 

Madame  La  Tour,  a  woman  of  heroic  mould,  was  meantime 
urging  the  fortunes  of  her  husband,  and  obtaining  supplies  for 
his  fort,  in  England.  On  the  return  voyage,  the  captain  of 
the  vessel,  instead  of  conveying  her,  as  agreed,  to  St.  John, 
after  trading  for  some  time  in  the  St.  Lawrence,  landed  her  at 
Boston.  The  indomitable  lady,  who  had  narrowly  escaped 
capture  by  D'Aulnay,  brought  a  civil  action  against  the  captain 
of  the  vessel  for  violation  of  his  charter,  and  recovered  a  ver- 
dict of  £2,000.  Expending  this  sum  in  supplies  and  muni- 
tions, she  sailed  for  the  St.  John,  and  placed  the  fort  in  a  con- 
dition for  vigourous  defence.  Learning  the  temporary  absence 
of  La  Tour,  D'Aulnay  promptly  laid  siege  to  the  fort.  The 
intrepid  lady,  however,  ofiered  a  most  effective  resistance. 
The  cannon  were  so  well  served  that  D'Aulnay's  frigate  soon 
became  unmanageable,  and  twenty  of  the  attacking  party  were 
killed  and  thirteen  wounded,  and  the  baffled  commander  was 
obliged  to  desist  from  his  attempt  to  reduce  the  fort.  La  Tour, 
in  the  meanwhile,  continued  to  receive  stores  and  munitions  of 
war  from  New  England,  notwithstanding  the  treaty  of  neutral- 


108  HISTORY  OF  CAXADA. 

ity.  In  reprisal,  D'Aulnay  seized  and  confiscated  a  Boston 
vessel.  This  had  the  effect'of  cutting  off  La  Tour's  source  of 
supplies,  and  leaving  him  comparatively  at  the  mercy  of  his 
powerful  enemy. 

The  crisis  of  this  prolonged  conflict  was  approaching.  In 
the  spring  of  1647,  the  unchivalric  D'Aulnay,  learning  that 
La  Tour,  with  most  of  his  men,  was  engaged  at  a  distance 
in  procuring  supplies,  again  attacked  the  fort  at  St.  John.  La 
Tour's  heroic  wife,  an  Acadian  Jean  d'Arc,  determined  to  hold 
out  to  the  last  extremity.  For  three  days  the  assailants  were 
effectively  repulsed.  On  the  fourth,  which  was  Easter  Sunday, 
through  the  treachery  of  a  mutinous  Swiss  sentry,  the  enemy 
gained  entrance  to  the  outer  works.  The  gallant  lady  rushed 
to  the  ramparts  at  the  head  of  her  little  handful  of  soldiers. 
D'Aulnay,  taught  by  exijerience  her  indomitable  energy,  and 
fearing  the  disgrace  of  a  second  defeat  at  the  hands  of  a 
woman,  offered  terms  of  capitulation.  Anxious  to  save  the 
lives  of  the  brave  men  who  had  defended  the  fort  iigainst  a 
much  superior  force,  Madame  La  Tour  accepted  the  offered 
terms.  When  D'Aulnay  beheld  the  weakness  of  the  little 
garrison,  he  treacherously  broke  his  plighted  word.  Every 
man  of  them  was  condemned  to  be  hanged  save  one,  who  had 
the  baseness  to  become  the  executioner  of  his  comrades.  As  a 
crowning  atrocity,  the  titled  ruffian  compelled  the  twice  be- 
trayed lady  to  witness  the  cruel  spectacle,  as  an  additional  in- 
dignity wearing  a  halter  around  her  neck.  The  fort  was  pil- 
laged of  all  its  stores,  furs,  and  merchandise,  to  the  value  of 
fifty  thousand  dollars,  and  D'Aulnay  retreated  to  Port  Royal 
with  his  ill-gotten  booty.  La  Tour  was  a  ruined  man,  a  wander- 
ing exile  on  the  bleak  shores  of  Newfoundland,  or  on  the  sterile 
wastes  around  Hudson's  Bay.  The  disasters  of  her  husband 
broke  the  wife's  heart,  and  soon  after  the  brave  soul  passed 
away. 

D'Aulnay  for  a  time  kept  feudal  state  in  his  fortress  at  Port 
Royal,  as  the  supreme  authority  in  all  Acadia.  In  four  years 
he  died,  deeply  involved  in  debt  and  disgrace.  His  rival  now 
came  back  from  the  wilderness,  vindicated  his  character  to  his 


ACADIA.  J  09 

sovereign,  was  confirmed  in  his  office  as  Lieutenant-Governor 
of  Acadia,  and  received  again  his  fort  at  St.  John.  As  lesi. 
the  acme  of  his  extraordinary  fortunes,  he  married  the  widow 
of  his  rival,  and  inherited 'his  estate.  That  estate,  however,  was 
much  encumbered.  Its  chief  creditor,  Le  Borgne,  a  merchant 
of  Rochelle,  obtained  permission  to  take  possession  of  Acadia 
as  security  for  the  satisfaction  of  his  claims.  He  accordingly 
attacked  M.  Denys,  who  had  acquired  great  wealth  by  the  fur 
trade  and  fishing,  at  Cape  Breton,  and  sent  him  a  prisoner  to 
Port  Eo3^al,  which  place  he  had  seized.  He  also  burned  La 
Heve,  and  prepared  for  the  capture  of  La  Tour's  fort  at  St.  John. 
A  new  power  now  appeared  In  the  field.  Oliver  Cromwell,' 
the  stout-hearted  Protector  of  England,  was  at  this  time  i654. 
at  war  with  the  Dutch,  and  sent  a  force 
for  the  capture  of  Manhattan  settlement 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson.  Peace, 
however,  was  concluded  before  that  pur- 
pose was  effected.  The  re-conquest  of 
Acadia  was  then  determined.  The  res- 
toration of  that  country  to  the  French 
had  always  been  displeasing  to  the  New 
England  colonists,  as  it  would  lay  their 
commerce  open  to  the  depredations  of 
CROMWELL.  French  privateers  in   time  of  war.     A 

secret  expedition  was  therefore  organized  under  Colonel  Sedg- 
wick for  the  reduction  of  the  French  forts.  Those  of  the 
Penobscot  and  St.  John  speedily  surrendered.  Le  Borgne 
was  strongly  posted  at  Port  Royal  with  a  force  of  one  hundred 
and  fifty  men.  After  a  pusillanimous  defence  he  yielded  at 
discretion.  La  Hcve  was  also  shortly  reduced,  and  Acadia 
was  oilce  more  in  the  possession  of  the  English.  La  Tour 
now  claimed  extensive  territorial  rights  by  virtue  of  Sir  Wil- 
liam Alexander's  grant  to  his  father,  which  had  so  long  lain 
dormant.  That  claim  was  recognized,  and  he  was  confirmed 
in  his  so  called  rights.  These  he  soon  sold  to  Sir  lese. 
Thomas  Temple,  and  shortly  after  ended  his  checkered  career 
in  obscurity  at  St.  John.    ' 


110  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

The  English  now  held  the  country  jointly  with  the  French 
for  eleven  years.  Sir  Thomas  Temple  governed  the  English 
portion  in  the  name  of  King  Charles  11. ,  and  expended 
£16,000  in  repairing  the  forts  under  his  control,  deriving,  also, 
large  revenues  from  the  fur  trade  ;  while  Le  Borgne  represented 
the  authority  of  Louis  XIV. 

The  whole  of  Acadia  was  ceded  to  the  French  by  the  Treaty  of 
Breda,  in  1667,  they  claiming,  under  that  name,  not  only  the 
peninsula,  but  also  the  extensive  region  from  the  Kennebec 
River  to  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  Sir  Thomas  Temple  de- 
clined to  admit  this  claim,  and  asserted  that  Acadia  comprised 
only  part  of  the  peninsula,  not-  including  the  forts  on  which  he 
had  expended  so  much  money.  The  king,  however,  denied 
this  distinction  as  frivolous,  and  ordered  the  surrender  of  the 
forts,  promising  indemnity  to  Sir  Thomas  Temple  for  the  ex- 
pense he  had  incurred.  The  transfer  accordingly  took  place, 
1670,  but  the  king's  promise,  like  many  another  that  he  made, 
was  never  fulfilled. 


ROYAL   GOVERXMEXT. 


Ill 


CHAPTER  IX. 


ROYAL  GOVERNMENT. 

Constitution  of  the  Supreme  Council  —  De  Mezy,  Governor,  1663  —  Civic  Dis- 
putes —  The  Great  Company  of  the  West  —  De  Tracy,  Viceroy  —  Talou,  lu- 
tendaut  —  Do  Courcelles,  Governor  —  Mid-winter  Attacks  on  the  Iroquois, 
1666  —  Do  Tracy  Conquers  the  Mohawks  —  Eighteen  Years'  Truce  —  Talon's 
Wise  Administration  —  Internal  Development  —  Seigneurial  Tenure  of  Laud 
—  The  Fur  Trade  — The  Small-Pox  and  Liquor  Traffic  Waste  tlie  Native 
Tribes  —  Jesuit  Explorations  —  Ths  Mission  of  Sault  Ste.  Marie  —  The 
French  on  Hudson's  Bay  —  In  Newfoundland. 

THE   influence   of  the   Abbe   Laval,   the  newly  appointed 
Vicar  Apostolic,  with  the  king  and  ministry  of  Erauce, 


{  il!J,!ll[ll 


procured  an  entire 
change  in  the  relations 
of  the  colony  to  the 
mother  country.  The 
charter  of  the  Hundred 
Associates  was  rescind- 
ed by  a  royal  edict, 
February,  1663,  and 
^i  the  government  of  New 
France  became  vested 
directly  in  the  Crown. 
The  fiiilure  of  the  Com- 
pany, now  reduced  to 
half  its  original  num- 
ber, to  meet  its  engage- 
ments, and  the  depress- 
ed condition  of  the  col- 
ony, were  an  ample 
vindication  of  this  step. 
Jean  Baptiste  Colbert, 
the  new  minister  of 
Louis  XIY.,  a  man  of 


112  niSTORT   OF  C AX  AD  A. 

comprehensive  views,  aud  of  great  energy  and  integrity  of 
character,  continued  for  a  score  of  years  to  be  the  tried  and 
true  friend  of  Canada.  He  endeavoured  to  restrain  the  corrup- 
tion and  extravagance  at  home,  in  order  that  aid  might  be  given 
for  the  development  of  the  colony,  but  with  only  very  partial 
success. 

As  Cardinal  Mazarin  lay  upon  his  death-bed,  he  said  to  his 
royal  master,  Louis  XIV.  :  "  Sire,  I  am  indebted  to  you  for 
all  that  I  possess  ;  but  I  think  I  am  requiting  all  3'our  majesty's 
favours  l)y  giving  you  Colbert."  The  great  minister  raised 
France  to  the  zenith  of  her  fame.  In  a  few  years  he  increased 
her  navy  fourfold.  He  was  the  generous  patron  of  literature, 
science,  and  art.  By  wise  legislation  he  extended  the  com- 
merce and  developed  the  resources  of  the  country.  He  opposed 
the  war  policy  of  Louis  XIV.,  by  which  the  resources  of 
the  kingdom  were  wasted.  But  the  royal  ambition  frustrated 
his  wise  counsels,  and  plunged  France  into  disastrous  wars. 
"Would  that  I  had  served  my  God  as  faithfully  as  I  have 
served  my  king  !  "  *  bitterly  exclaimed  the  fallen  minister  upon 
his  death-bed.  To  protect  his  funeral  against  the  attacks  of 
the  mob,  it  took  place  at  night,  guarded  by  a  military  escort. 
Such  is  the  proverbial  ingratitude  of  nations  to  their  most 
faithful  servants. 

Laval  had  procured  the  appointment  of  M.  de  Mezy,  com- 
mandant of  Caen,  as  Governor  of  Canada,  on  account  of  his  an- 
ticipated subserviency  to  himself.  A  royal  commissioner,  M. 
Gaudais  Dupont,  was  also  sent  out  to  inquire  into  the  state  of 
the  colony,  and  to  report  to  the  home  ministry.  The  new  gov- 
ernment was  administered  by  a  Supreme  Council,  composed  of 
the  Governor,  the  Bishop, f  and  the  royal  Intendant,  assisted  by 
four  councillors, — a  number  afterwards  raised  to  twelve, — 
who  held  office  for  one  year,  and  were  jointly  appointed  by 
the  Governor  and  Bishop.      The  Bishop  had  jurisdiction  over 

*  Compare  tbe  similar  exclamation  of  Cardinal  Wolsey  in  Shakespeare's 
Henry  VIII.,  Act  III.,vScene  ii. 

t  We  use  this  title  for  convenience,  although  Laval  did  not  receive  it  till 
1670. 


ROYAL   GOVERNMENT.  113 

ecclesiastical  affairs,  and  had  much  influence  in  the  civil  admin- 
istration. The  Governor  was  the  military  representative  of  the 
king,  and  was  generally  of  noble  rank.  The  Intendant  was  the 
king's  representative  in  legal  matters,  and  was  generally  a 
member  of  the  legal  profession.  He  controlled  all  expenditure 
of  public  money,  and  his  ordinances  had  all  the  force  of  law. 
These  ordinances  were  generally  proclaimed  at  the  church  door, 
or  from  tho  pulpit,  and,  besides  dealing  with  more  important 
subjects,  descended  to  such  minor  matters  as  pew-rents,-  stray 
hogs,  mad  dogs,  fast  driving,  matrimonial  quarrels,  fairs  and 
markets,  weights  and  measures,  and  all  the  complex  details  of 
colonial  life. 

The  respective  duties  and  authority  of  the  Governor  and  In- 
tendant were  not  clearly  defined,  and  from  their  peculiar  rela- 
tions it  was  impossible  but  that  jealousies  should  arise  between 
them.  The  Governor  frequently,  and  with  justice,  regarded 
the  Intendant  as  a  spy  upon  his  conduct,  and  a  check  upon  his 
influence  ;  and  each  made  frequent  voluminous  and  often  con- 
flicting reports  to  the  king.  The  Council  met  every  Monday, 
at  first  at  the  vice-regal  chateau  of  St.  Louis,  and  afterwards 
in  an  old  brewery,  fitted  up  as  a  "Palace  of  Justice."  Its 
jurisdiction  covered  every  department  of  government, —  legis- 
lative, judicial,  executive, —  from  declaring  war  or  peace  to 
trivial  municipal  regulations,  and  the  settlement  of  petty  dis- 
putes, of  which  there  seems  to  have  been  a  great  many.  Many 
of  the  laws,  like  those  of  the  New  England  Colonies,  had  ref- 
erence to  moral  observances,  and  were  enforced  with  inquisito- 
rial rigour.  The  penalty  for  profane  swearing,  for  instance, 
varied  from  a  fine  up  to  branding,  the  pillory,  and,  in  obstinate 
cases,  the  excision  of  the  offending  tongue. 

Subordinate  courts  were  afterwards  establislied  at  Quebec, 
Three  Rivers,  and  Montreal ;  and  the  seigneurs  were  empow- 
ered to  settle  disputes,  "  involving  not  more  than  sixty  sous, 
or  offences  of  which  the  fine  was  not  more  than  ten  sous."  In 
a  few  instances,  however,  their  jurisdiction  was  allowed  to  ex- 
tend beyond  these  narrow  limits.     The  code  of  laws  of  the 


114  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

mother  country,  known  as  the  '*  Coutume  de  Paris,"  or  custom 
of  Paris,  became  the  recognized  colonial  standard. 

M.  de  Mezy,  the  new  Governor,  failed  to  manifest  that  sub- 
serviency to  the  Bishop  that  the  latter  had  expected.  Eaised 
from  the  control  of  the  little  garrison  of  Caen  to  that  of  a 
country  as  large  as  the  whole  of  France,  he  soon  gave  evidence 
that  he  had  a  mind  of  his  own.  He  found  that  the  influence  of 
the  Jesuits  was  supreme  in  the  colony,  and  was  soon  involved 
in  disputes  with  their  Order.  This  brought  him  into  collision 
with  Laval,  who  sustained  the  influence  of  the  Fathers,  Avho,  by 
their  toils  and  sufierings,  were  considered  to  have  a  title  to  a 
large  share  of  political  as  well  as  spiritual  influence.  The 
meetings  of  the  Council  proved  of  a  very  stormy  character.  De 
Mezy  proceeded  to  the  violent  exercise  of  his  authority  by 
expelling  from  the  board  two  of  its  members,  nominees  of 
Laval, —  Sieur  Villeray  and  M.  Bourdon,  the  latter  an  officer 
corresponding  to  the  attorney-general  of  later  times, —  and 
compelled  them  to  return  to  France.  It  is  even  asserted  that 
the  Governor  proceeded  with  a  band  of  soldiers  to  the  church 
where  Laval  was  saying  mass,  as  if  for  his  arrest.  The  repre- 
sentations of  the  Bishop,  and  of  the  banished  councillors,  led 
to  an  order  for  the  recall  of  the  choleric  De  Mezy  ;  but  he  died, 
seemingly  of  chagrin  and  annoyance,  before  the  summons 
reached  Canada. 

Among  the  vast  and  towering  schemes  of  the  great  minister, 
Colbert,  for  the  extension  of  the  commerce  and  influence  of 
France,  was  the  creation  of  the  Company  of  the  West,  a 
giant  monopoly,  to  which  was  granted  the  trade  of  half  a 
world.  It  was  invested  with  the  absolute  control,  so  far  as  the 
King  of  France  could  give  it,  of  the  commerce  of  western 
Africa  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to  Cape  Yerde,  of  South 
America  between  the  Orinoco  and  the  Amazon,  of  the  An- 
tilles, and  of  the  whole  of  New  France,  from  the  frozen  shores  of 
Hudson's  Bay  to  the  Spanish  settlements  of  Florida,  and  the 
British  seaboard  colonies.  For  forty  years  it  was  to  hold  the 
monopoly  of  traffic  in  the  furs  of  Canada,  the  sugar  of  the 
West  Indies  and  Cayenne,  and  the  slaves  of  the  Guinea  coast, 


ROYAL   GOVERNMENT.  115 

in  consideration  of  defraying  the  expenses  of  government  and 
administration  of  justice,  of  promulgating  the  Catholic  faith, 
and  of  excluding  teachers  of  false  doctrine  from  the  colonies 
under  its  protection.  But  instead  of  fostering,  it  but  tended 
to  strangle,  by  its  restrictions,  the  infant  commerce  of  the 
colonies,  and  to  extinguish  the  enterprise  of  colonial  traders. 
The  new  system  was  inaugurated  with  considerable  energy.  A 
hundred  families  of  emigrants  arrived,  and  the  prospects  of 
the  colony  seemed  to  brighten  ;  but  the  inevitable  consequence 
of  vicious  commercial  restrictions  was  soon  apparent  in  the  lan- 
guor and  lethargy  that  characterized  the  trade  of  New  France. 
Simultaneous  with  these  events  was  another,  which  was  des- 
tined to  affect  the  entire  future  history  of  the  North  loe*. 
American  continent.  The  English  sovereign,  Charles  11. ,  had 
granted  to  his  brother,  the  Duke  of  York,  the  country  adjacent 
to  the  Hudson  River,  which  for  fifty  years  had  been  in  the 
peaceable  possession  of  the  Dutch.  Four  English  ships 
anchored  before  New  Amsterdam,  and  demanded  its  surrender. 
The  sturdy  Dutch  Governor,  Peter  Stuyvesaut,  tore  into  shreds 
the  cartel  of  the  British  commander,  and  would  fain  have  re- 
plied by  the  mouth  of  his  cannon.  The  thrifty  burgomasters, 
however,  urged  a  capitulation,  and  after  a  short  parley,  the 
white  flag  was  raised,  and  the  Dutch  settlers  became  British 
subjects.  Out  of  compliment  to  the  Duke  of  York,  the  place 
was  re-named  New  York,  and  Fort  Orange  became  Albany. 
The  English  strove  steadily  to  divert  the  fur  trade  from  the  St. 
Lawrence  to  the  Hudson,  offering  in  barter  better  goods  at 
lower  prices  than  their  French  rivals.  The  Iroquois  became 
their  frequent  allies,  and  for  years  held  the  balance  of  power 
between  the  hostile  nations.  These  astute  forest  politicians 
soon  saw  that  it  was  their  interest  to  prevent  either  the  French 
or  English  from  conquering  the  other.  When  fortune  favoured 
the  English,  their  savage  allies  would  break  t)ff  their  allegiance 
to  them  and  make  a  separate  peace  with  the  French.  Out  of 
the  commercial  greed  of  these  formidable  rivals  sprang  the 
cruel  wars  which  long  desolated  the  frontiers  of  New  England 
and  New  France. 


116  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

In  consequence  of  the  representations  of  Laval  and  his  par- 
tisans, as  we  have  seen,  De  Mezy  was  superseded  as  Governor 
of  New  France.  In  order  to  settle  certain  disorders  in  the 
Antilles,  to  reorganize  the  government  of  Canada,  and  'to  so 
effectually  reduce  the  Iroquois,  as  to  prevent  the  recurrence  of 
their  murderous  invasions,  the  Marquis  de  Tracy,  a  veteran 
1665.  military  officer,  was  commissioned  by  the  king  as  his 
Lieutenant-General  and  Viceroy  of  all  the  French  possessions 
in  the  New  World.  After  accomplishing  his  mission  in  the 
West  Indies,  he  reached  Quebec  in  June,  1665.  He  was  soon 
followed  by  the  new  Governor  who  had  been  appointed  to  suc- 
ceed De  Mezy, —  Daniel  de  Remy,  Sieur  de  Courcelles, — 
and  by  the  first  Intendant,  Jean  Baptiste  Talon,  a  man  of 
notable  abilities,  who  was  destined  to  exert  a  potent  and  benefi- 
cent influence  on  the  future  of  Canada.  With  these  distin- 
guished persons  came,  also,  a  numerous  body  of  soldiers  and 
settlers,  both  men  and  women,  together  with  horses,  sheep, 
cattle,  implements,  and  military  stores.  The  soldiers  were 
that  splendid  body  of  troops  known  as  the  royal  Carignan  regi- 
ment, which  had  won  glory  in  Hungary,  fighting  against  the 
Turks.  The  scanty  population  of  Quebec  gazed  with  pride, 
and  the  Indian  scouts  with  amazement,  on  the  solid  phalanx  of 
these  mail-clad  warriors,  as  with  roll  of  drums  and  peal  of 
trumpets  they  climbed  the  steep  ascent  to  the  citadel.  The 
mounted  officers  especially  struck  terror  to  the  savage  breast, 
as  they  were  deemed  inseparable  from  the  horses  they  bestrode, 
the  first  the  Indians  had  ever  seen.  The  addition  to  the  pop- 
ulation during  the  season  was  two  thousand  persons,  about 
thirteen  hundred  of  whom  were  veteran  troops.  "  It  was  a 
company,"  says  the  chronicler,  "greater  than  that  which  it 
came  to  re-enforce." 

The  colony  was  now  strong  enough  to  wage  an  aggressive 
warfare  against  the  Iroquois,  a  warfiire  which  was  regarded  as 
a  sacred  crusade  against  the  enemies  of  God,  and  was  conse- 
crated with  prayer  and  religious  devotions. 

To  check  the  inroads  of  the  savages,  by  way  of  Lake  Cham- 
plain  and  the  Richelieu,  forts  were  built  at  Chambly  and  Sorel, 


ROYAL   GOVERNMENT.  117 

wliich  places  received  their  names  from  the  officers  in  command 
of  the  works.  Ahirmed  at  the  preparations  for  war,  the  Onon- 
dagas,  Cayugas,  and  Senecas  sent  an  embassy  to  make  a  treaty 
of  peace  with  the  French.  The  Mohawks  and  Oncidas  re- 
mained hostile.  De  Courcelles,  the  Governor,  a  rash  but 
gallant  soldier,  obtained  permission  from  De  Tracy,  who,  as 
Viceroy,  was  bis  superior,  to  lead  an  expedition  against  the 
enemy.  It  was  midwinter,  January  9th,  when,  after  icee. 
solemn  religious  service,  a  brigade  of  five  hundred  men  set  out 
from  Quebec  for  the  distant  Mohawk  towns.  Their  course  lay 
along  the  icy  and  difficult  floor  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  Each 
man  bore,  besides  bis  accoutrements  and  blanket,  a  pair  of 
snowshoes  and  twenty  pounds  of  biscuit.  The  keen  wind 
swept  over  the  frozen  river  and  chilled  them  to  the  marrow. 
They  ascended  the  tortuous  Eichelieu,  and  traversed  the  solid 
surface  of  lakes  Champlaiu  and  St.  Sacrament  (Lake  George), 
encamping  in  the  deep  snow,  gnawed  to  the  bone  by  the  bit- 
ing frost,  and  sufiering  severely  from  the  unaccustomed  mode 
of  travel  ou  snowshoes  beneath  heavy  burdens.  Reaching 
the  borders  of  the  Mohawk  country,  a  detachment  of  troops 
fell  into  an  ambuscade,  and  eleven  were  slain  and  seven 
wounded.  Finding  that  he  was  trespassing  on  the  territory 
recently  ceded  by  the  Dutch  to  the  English,  and  conquered  by 
the  elements  rather  than  by  the  savage  foe,  De  Courcelles 
began  a  precipitate  retreat.  Sixty  of  his  men  perished  by 
cold  before  he  reached  the  frontier  forts,  and  after  a  march  of 
fifteen  hundred  miles,  the  worn  and  weary  battalions  regained 
Quebec.  "  Surely,"  exclaims  the  contemporary  English  chron- 
icler, "  so  bould  and  hardy  an  attempt  hath  not  hapnecl  in 
any  age  ! " 

The  expedition,  disastrous  as  it  proved  in  its  issue,  struck 
terror  into  the  hearts  of  the  Iroquois.  The  Mohawks  alone 
continued  their  depredations.  They  attacked  a  hunting-party 
of  the  French,  and  killed  a  nephew  of  De  Tracy,  De  Chasy  by 
name.  At  Quebec  were  several  Iroquois  ambassadors,  all 
anxious,  as  they  professed,  to  make  a  treaty  of  peace.  Not- 
withstanding  the   murder,  negotiations  were    still   going   on, 


118  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

■when  two  Mohawk  chiefs  arrived  ou  the  same  ostensible  errand. 
Being  invited  to  dine  with  De  Tracy,  on  reference  being 
made  to  the  death  of  young  De  Chasy,  one  of  the  Mohawl^s, 
raising  his  arm,  boastfully  exclaimed,  "This  is  the  hand  that 
split  that  young  man's  head."  De  Tracy,  in  an  outburst  of 
indignation,  declared  that  he  should  never  kill  anybody  else, 
and  ordered  him  to  be  hanged  forthwith.  This  put  an  end 
to  the  negotiations  for  peace,  and  preparations  were  made  for 
inflicting  a  crushing  blow  on  the  confederate  tribes. 

During  the  following  autumn  De  Tracy,  then  a  veteran  of 
nearly  seventy  years,  organized  an  expedition  for  the  su1)juga- 
tion  of  the  Iroquois.  In  three  hundred  boats,  in  the  bright 
October  weather,  thirteen  hundred  men,  including  a  hundred 
Indian  allies  and  six  hundred  Carignan  soldiers,  threaded  the 
mazes  of  the  Eichelieu,  and  the  lovely  lakes,  Champlain  and 
St.  Sacrament.  Accompanied  by  a  brilliant  suite  of  officers, 
and  with  as  much  of  the  pomp  and  circumstance  of  European 
war  as  was  practicable,  De  Tracy  led  the  van.  He  was  inop- 
portunely attacked  by  gout,  and  had  to  be  carried  on  a  litter. 
A  hundred  miles  march  through  tangled  woods,  on  short  allow- 
ance of  food,  severely  taxed  the  endurance  of  the  troops. 
They  were  saved  from  starvation  by  finding  a  grove  of  chestnut- 
trees,  filled  with  nuts.  Coming  on  the  Mohawk  stockades, 
twenty  drums  sounded  the  charge,  and  two  small  cannon,  which 
had  been  dragged  through  the  woods,  were  brought  into  posi- 
tion. Terrified  at  the  unaccustomed  din,  and  at  the  seemingly 
endless  files  of  the  French  debouching  from  the  forest,  the  Mo- 
hawks abandoned  town  after  town.  At  one  stronghold  they 
seemed  determined  to  make  a  stand.  It  was  defended  by  a 
triple  palisade,  twenty  feet  high,  and  was  further  protected  by 
four  flanking  bastions.  Magazines  of  stones  were  collected, 
and  large  vessels  filled  with  water  for  the  purpose  of  frustrating 
any  attempt  to  fire  the  palisades.  Some  of  the  houses  were  a 
hundred  and  twenty  feet  long,  with  fires  for  eight  or  ten  fami- 
lies, after  the  communal  system  of  the  Iroquois.  Immense 
quantities  of  Indian  corn  were  concealed  in  subterranean  gran- 
aries, and  everything  gave  evidence  of  a  higher  grade  of  social 


EOYAL   GOVERNMENT.  119 

development  than  was  usual  with  the  red  race.  But  for  the 
present,  their  fears  of  the  invaders  overcame  their  courage,  and 
they  all  fled  for  refuge  to  the  neighbouring  forest.  Unop- 
posed, the  French  took  possession  of  all  the  towns ;  the  Te 
Deum  was  sung ;  the  mass  was  said ;  the  cross  was  planted, 
and  De  Tracy  claimed  the  whole  Mohawk  country  in  the  name 
of  his  royal  master,  Louis  XIV.  That  night  the  forest  was 
reddened  with  the  flames  of  the  burning  Indian  villages,  with 
all  their  winter  stores  of  maize,  and  soon  naught  remained  but 
heaps  of  smouldering  embers.  With  the  early  morning  the 
little  army  was  in  full  retreat,  and,  after  many  hardships,  at 
length  reached  Quebec  before  winter  fell. 

The  British  Governor  of  New  York,  hearing  of  De  Tracy's 
invasion  of  what  he  considered  English  territory,  endeavoured 
to  organize,  in  concert  with  the  New  England  colonies,  an  ex- 
pedition to  cut  ofi"  his  retreat.  But  the  project,  through  tardi- 
ness or  indifierence  on  the  part  of  the  colonial  authorities, 
proved  abortive. 

The  poAver  of  the  Mohawks  was  now  broken.  Before  spring, 
four  hundred  are  said  to  have  perished.  The  survivors  learned 
to  dread  the  strength  of  that  arm  which,  at  such  a  distance, 
could  strike  such  a  blow,  and  a  treaty  of  peace  was  made, 
which  gave  rest  to  the  long  harassed  colony  for  eighteen  years. 
Several  Jesuit  missionaries  went  to  live  and  labour  among  the 
conquered  tribes,  and  by  their  influence  the  ferocity  of  the 
savage  nature  was  sensibly  modified,  and  many  became,  at 
least  nominal  converts  t9  Christianity.  A  band  of  Mohawk 
neophytes  exhibited  such  religious  devotion,  that  the  Superior, 
fearing  the  diminution  of  their  zeal  through  the  influence  of 
their  still  pagan  tribesmen,  ti'ansferred  them  to  the  Mission  of 
Prairie  de  la  Madelaine,  opposite  Montreal.  It  was  thought, 
also,  that  they  would  thus  serve  as  a  check  to  the  invasion  of 
the  Iroquois  should  war  break  out.  Certain  it  is  that  the  wars 
of  a  later  period  were  not  characterized  by  the  atrocious 
cruelties  of  those  which  we  have  already  described.  While  the 
savages  did  not  altogether  cease  to  torture  their  prisoners,  it  was 
no  longer  with  that  fiendish  ingenuity  that  wreaked  its  rage  on 


120.  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

the  bodies  of  Jogiies  and  Bressani,  or  Brebeiif  and  Lalemant, 
nor  were  they  guilty  of  the  disgusting  cannibalism  of  the 
former  period. 

Under  the  able  administration  of  De  Courcelles  and  Talon, 
after  the  departure  of  Tracy  in  1667,  the  affairs  of  the  colony 
greatly  prospered.  The  Intendant  especially  laboured  to  de- 
veloiJ  the  natural  resources  of  the  field,  the  forest,  and  the 
mine,  as  well  as  the  fisheries,  and  the  fur  trade.  He  endeav- 
oured to  promote  manufacturing,  shipbuilding,  and  trade  with 
the  West  Indies.  He  began  the  construction  of  an  interco- 
lonial road  to  Acadia,  and  extended  explorations  towards  Hud- 
son's Bay,  the  Great  Lakes,  and  the  Mississippi.  Many  of  his 
enlightened  schemes  are  only  being  carried  into  effect  two 
centuries  after  his  death.  He  procured  the  disbandment  of 
the  Carignan  regiment  in  the  colony,  with  grants  of  land  to 
the  'officers  and  men.  Thus  several  hundred  able-bodied  sol- 
diers were  retained  in  the  country,  to  develop  its  resources 
and  defend  its  frontier. 

In  order  to  procure  wives  for  the  disbanded  troops  and  un- 
married colonists.  Talon,  in  conjunction  with  the  home  authori- 
ties, procured  a  large  immigration  of  marriageable  young 
women  of  good  character,  to  whom  a  handsome  dowry,  — 
"  an  ox,  a  cow,  a  pair  of  swine,  a  pair  of  fowls,  two  barrels 
of  salted  moat,  and  eleven  crowns  in  money,"  —  was  paid. 
A  fine  was  imposed  on  celibacy,  bounties  were  ofiered  for 
early  marriages,  and  on  the  arrival  of  the  annual  ship-load 
of  candidates  for  matrimony,  "  couples  were  wedded,"  says  the 
contemporary  chronicle,  "  by  thirties  at  a  time."  The  pater- 
nal solicitude  of  the  government  went  still  further,  and  boun- 
ties were  ofiered  for  the  largest  families, —  a  pension  of  three 
hundred  livres  a  year  for  a  fimiily  of  ten  children,  and  one  of 
four  hundred  livres  a  year  for  a  family  of  twelve  children, 
born  in  lawful  wedlock. 

The  tenure  of  land  in  New  France  was  a  modification  of  the 
feudal  system.  Large  blocks,  of  two  or  three  leagues  square, 
more  or  less,  were  granted  to  seigneurs,  generally  military 
officers,  or  scions  of  noble  houses.     These  grants  they  held  on 


ROYAL   GOVERNMENT.  121 

condition  of  paying  fealty  to  the  king,  or  his  representative, 
the  Governor.  This  ceremony  was  annually  observed  in  the 
Chateau  of  St.  Louis  at  Quebec.  The  seigneurs  were  obliged 
to  pay  to  the  royal  or  colonial  treasury,  when  any  sale  of  their 
land  was  made,  a  fifth  of  the  purchase-money,  hence^  called  a 
quint ;  and  were  required  to  administer  justice  and  maintain 
order  within  their  domain.  They  were  expected,  if  need  were, 
to  erect  a  log  or  stone  fortress  for  the  protection  of  their  ten- 
ants during  the  frequent  Indian  wars,  and  to  construct  a  mill 
for  the  grinding  of  their  corn.  This  last  served  often  as  a 
loop-holed  fortress  and  rallying  point  for  defence. 

The  military  settlers  became  the  tenants  or  censitaires  of  the 
seigneurs,  often  their  former  officers,  to  whom  extensive  do- 
mains had  been  assigned.  The  land  grants  of  the  disbanded 
soldiers,  and  others,  were  situated  chiefly  on  the  St.  Lawrence 
and  Kichelieu,  and  were  generally  a  hundred  arpents  or  French 
acres  in  size,  having  a  narrow  frontage  on  the  river,  and  run- 
ning back  about  a  mile  and  a  half.  These  farms  often  became 
subdivided  by  inheritance  into  mere  ribands  of  land,  some  of 
which  have  continued  in  the  same  family  to  the  present  time. 
Li  the  absence  of  roads  the  proximity  to  the  river  furnished 
facilities  for  travel,  and  also  for  mutual  protection.  The  Sul- 
pitian  Fathers  of  Montreal,  who  were,  in  efiect,  the  feudal 
lords  of  the  island,  surrounded  their  domain  with  a  border  of 
hardy  settlers  in  fief,  who  formed  an  efi'ective  defence  in  the 
Indian  attacks,  to  which  the  settlement  was  exposed. 

The  censitaires  paid  to  the  seigneur  a  nominal  rent ;  but  they 
were  required  also  to  pay  a  small  annual  tribute  in  kind,  as  a 
goose,  a  pair  of  fowls,  or  the  like  ;  to  labour  for  his  benefit  a  cer- 
tain number  of  days  in  the  year  ;  to  get  their  corn  ground  at  his 
mill,  paying  a  fixed  toll  therefor ;  to  give  him  one  fish  in  every 
eleven  caught ;  and,  in  case  of  a  sale  of  their  lands,  to  pay 
him  one-twelfth  of  the  price  received.  This,  when  the  value 
of  the  property  was  increased  by  buildings,  or  improve- 
ments, gi-ew  to  be  an  intolerable  tax.  This  system  of  seign- 
eurial  tenure  was  only  entirely  abolished  in  1854.  The  rents 
were  often  absurdly  low.     At  Montreal,  at  this  period,  a  com- 

16 


122  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

moil  annual  rate  was  half  a  sou  and  half  a  pint  of  wheat  per 
acre.  The  purchasing  power  of  money  was  very  great.  Fuel 
sold  at  Quebec  for  one  and  threepence  per  cord,  the  amount  of 
a  day's  wages.  Eels  were  sold  in  the  market  at  one  shilling 
per  hundred. 

Notwithstanding  the  patriotic  efforts  of  Talon,  the  condition 
of  Canada  was  anything  but  satisfactory.  Trade,  strangled  by 
artificial  restrictions,  languished,  and  the  West  India  Company 
grew  rich  at  the  expense  of  the  colony.  Almost  the  sole  traffic 
was  that  in  furs,  which  was  unduly  stimulated,  to  the  great  in- 
jury of  the  agricultural  interests  of  the  country.  The  wild 
forest  life  had  an  irresistible  fascination  to  the  adventurous 
spirits  of  the  time.  Hundreds  of  the  young  men,  disdaining 
the  dull  routine  of  labour,  became  coureurs  de  hois, —  "run- 
ners of  the  woods,"  —  and  roamed  like  savage  nomads  upon 
the  distant  shores  of  lakes  Superior  and  Michigan.  Meanwhile 
the  fields  languished  for  lack  of  tillage ;  poverty  and  famine 
wasted  the  land. 

The  commercial  monopoly  of  the  Company  was  the  cause  of 
intense  dissatisfaction.  It  possessed  the  exclusive  right  of 
importation,  and  was  therefore  enabled  to  fix  the  price,  both  of 
the  necessary  supplies  of  life,  and  of  the  furs,  fish,  and  other 
products  of  the  country,  with  reference  solely  to  its  own  inter- 
ests, without  regard  to  the  rights  of  the  people.  On  the  re- 
monstrance of  Talon  with  Colbert,  the  Company  was  compelled, 
in  1671,  to  relinquish  a  part  of  its  monopoly.  The  people 
were  permitted  to  import  goods  on  their  own  account,  and  also 
to  purchase  peltries  from  the  trappers  and  hunters,  both  white 
and  red.  But  they  were  compelled  to  pay  to  the  Company  a 
duty  of  one-fourth  of  the  beaver-skins,  and  one-twelfth  of  all 
the  buffalo-robes. 

At  length,  in  1674,  the  charter  of  the  West  India  Company 
was  rescinded,  and  the  trade  reverted  directly  to  the  Crown. 
The  collection  of  the  government  tax  of  one-fourth  and  one- 
twelfth  of  all  the  beaver-skins  and  buffalo-skins  respectively, 
was  leased  out  to  "  Farmers-General,"  who  bought  up  the  re- 
mainder at  a  fixed  price.     The  coureurs  de  hois,  lawless  and 


ROYAL   GOVERNMENT.  123 

reckless,  set  at  defiance  the  royal  edicts  issued  for  their  re- 
straint, and  glutted  the  market  with  furs  for  which  there  was 
no  remunerative  demand.  In  the  year  1700,  three-fourths  of 
the  stock  at  jSIontreal  was  burned,  to  make  the  rest  worth 
exportation. 

A  considerable  number  of  Algonquin  Indians,  and  the  rem- 
nant of  the  Huron  nation,  had  been  gathered  into  mission  com- 
munities by  the  Jesuit  Fathers,  and  brought  under  at  least  the 
partial  restraint  of  Christianity  and  civilization.  But  the 
white  man's  diseases,  and  the  white  man's  vices,  were  more 
easily  acquired  than  the  white  man's  virtues.  The  deadly  small- 
pox wasted  the  native  tribes,  in  some  cases  almost  to  extinc- 
tion. Of  fifteen  hundred  Indians  at  Sillery,  nearly  all  were 
swept  away  by  this  dreadful  plague.  Tadousac  and  Three 
Elvers,  where  hundreds  of  Indians  had  annually  assembled  to 
barter  their  rich  furs,  the  spoils  of  half  a  continent,  became  al- 
most deserted.  As  we  have  already  seen,  the  efiects  of  the 
white  man's  "  fire-water"  was  still  more  disastrous  in  demoral- 
izing and  corrupting  the  native  tribes. 

An  act  of  vigour,  on  the  part  of  Courcelles,  prevented  a 
threatened  rupture  of  the  peace,  and  indeed  cemented  its 
bonds  all  the  more  firmly.  A  Mohawk  chief  had  been  mur- 
dered for  his  furs  by  three  French  soldiers,  and  his  tribesmen, 
of  course,  were  eager  for  revenge.  The  Governor,  hastening 
to  Montreal,  had  the  soldiers  tried,  and,  on  conviction,  exe- 
cuted in  the  presence  of  a  large  assemblage  of  Iroquois  depu- 
ties. At  the  same  time,  he  declared  that  similar  justice  would 
be  meted  out  to  all  violators  of  the  public  peace,  whether  red 
or  white.  This  vindication  of  the  majesty  of  law,  made  a  pro- 
found impression  on  the  Indian  mind  of  the  justice  of  the 
French,  and  confirmed  them  in  their  allegiance. 

As  another  barrier  against  the  inroads  of  the  Iroquois,  in 
the  event  of  war  with  that  restless  race,  which  the  French  felt 
was  j)retty  sure  to  take  place,  the  fertile  mind  of  Courcelles 
conceived  the  project  of  building  a  fort  at  the  foot  of  Lake 
Ontario,  or  Lac  St.  Louis,  as  it  was  then  called.  By  com- 
manding the  entrance  to  the  St.  Lawrence,  he  would  control  at 


124  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

least  one  of  the  great  avenues  of  approach  from  the  Iroquois 
towns  to  the  French  settlements.  But  how  should  he  build 
such  a  fort  without  awaking  the  hostility  of  those  jealous  tribes 
by  what  might  seem  to  them  a  menace  to  their  liberties  ?  He 
resolved  to  appeal  to  their  cupidity.  He  invited  the  assembly 
of  a  council  of  Iroquois  chiefs  at  Catarqui,  the  site  of  the  pro- 
loosed  fort.  A  great  feast  was  held,  the  jDcace-pipe  was  passed, 
many  speeches  were  made,  and  the  politic  gifts  of  the  French 
presented.  The  Governor  then  announced  that,  out  of  his  great 
regard  for  his  Iroquois  allies,  he  had  determined  on  building  a 
fort  on  the  spot  where  they  were  assembled,  in  order  that  the 
men  of  the  forest  cantons  might  more  conveniently  trade  with 
their  white  brethren,  than  by  making  the  long  and  perilous 
voyage  down  the  rapids  of  the  St.  Lawrence  to  oMontreal  or 
Quebec.  The  project  was  hailed  with  delight,  and  the  Indian 
deputies  were  eager  for  the  early  completion  of  the  works  that 
would  place  in  the  hands  of  the  French  the  key  of  the  naviga- 
tion of  the  St.  Lawrence.  The  accomplishment  of  this  wise 
design,  however,  was  reserved,  as  we  shall  see,  for  the  suc- 
cessor of  Courcelles. 

M.  Talon,  the  energetic  Intendant  of  New  France,  was  the 
rival  of  its  Governor  in  efforts  to  advance  its  interests.  Among 
his  far-reaching  schemes,  was  one  which  he  laid  before  Colbert, 
the  French  minister  of  finance,  for  obtaining  possession  of 
New  York,  either  by  treaty  or  by  conquest.  The  British  col- 
onies on  the  Atlantic  seaboard  being  thus  divided,  it  was  con- 
ceived that  the  subsequent  reduction  of  the  New  England  and 
Virginian  settlements,  would  be  comparatively  easy.  This 
astute  policy  failing,  Talon  zealously  devoted  himself  to  the 
exploration  of  the  interior.  The  hope  of  finding  a  passage,  by 
means  of  the  great  lakes  and  rivers  of  the  far  AYest,  across  the 
continent  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  the  golden  shores  of  China 
and  India  beyond,  had  not  yet  been  abandoned.  At  all 
events,  it  was  possible,  by  descending  the  great  Father  of 
Waters,  of  which  he  had  heard,  to  find  an  outlet  to  the  ocean, 
and  by  securing  a  southern  seaport,  to  hold  the  Spaniards  m 


EOYAL   GOVERNMENT.  125 

check,  and  obtain  a  share  of  those  vast  regions  to  which  they 
laid  exclusive  claim. 

The  lutendant  found  in  the  Jesuit  missionaries  and  adventur- 
ous fur  traders,  admirable  agents  for  carrying  out  this  policy. 
As  we  have  seen,  the  missionary  Fathers  were  the  pathfinders 
of  empire  in  the  for  West.  Lured  by  their  love  of  souls,  they 
early  penetrated  the  remotest  wilderness  to  preach  the  Gospel 
to  the  wandering  tribes  of  the  forest.  In  1615,  within  seven 
years  after  the  founding  of  Quebec,  and  five  years  before  the 
settlement  of  Plymouth  Colony,  a  Catholic  missionary  had 
planted  the  cross  and  chanted  the  mass  on  the  shores  of  the 
great  inland  sea,  Lake  Huron.  From  1626  to  1649,  except 
during  the  three  years  of  British  rule  at  Quebec,  devoted  bands 
of  missionaries  laboured  and  pra^^ed  and  died  in  that  rugged 
wilderness,  for  the  salvation  of  souls.  In  1640,  Brebeuf  and 
Chaumonot  explored  the  southern  shore  of  Lake  Erie.  In 
1641,  as  we  have  seen,  Jogues  and  Raymbault  jireached  to  two 
thousand  red  men  at  the  Sault  Ste.  Marie.  In  1646,  Pere  de 
Quen  threaded  the  gloomy  passes  of  the  Saguenay  to  teach  the 
way  of  redemption  to  savage  northern  hordes.  In  1660,  Ren6 
INIesnard,  though  aged  and  infirm,  set  out  for  Lake  Superior, 
reached  Keweenaw  Bay,  and  perished  in  the  wilderness.  The 
zeal  of  Laval  burned  to  tread  in  the  same  path  of  trial  and 
glory.  In  1665,  Pere  AUotiez  paddled  his  frail  canoe  over  the 
crystal  waters  of  Superior,  beneath  the  pictured  rocks,  the 
columned  palisades,  the  rolling  sand-dunes  of  its  southern  shore, 
to  its  furthest  extremity,  and  heard  of  the  vast  prairies  and 
great  rivers  beyond.  After  dwelling  two  years  on  its  shores, 
and  having  preached  the  Gospel  to  twenty  tribes  who  came  from 
afar  to  hear  the  wondrous  story,  he  returned  to  Quebec  for  re- 
cruits for  his  mission.  Such  was  his  zeal,  that  after  a  single 
day's  sojourn  in  the  precincts  of  civilization,  he  was  on  his 
way  back  to  the  wilderness  with  another  priest,  Louis  Nicolas, 
as  his  companion  in  holy  toil. 

In  1670,  Claude  Dablou  and  James  Marquette  established  a 
permanent  mission  at  the  rapids  of  St.  Mary,  a  fiivouritc  fish- 
ing ground  for  all  the  neighbouring  Indians.     The  following 


126 


niSTORT  OF  CANADA. 


year,  by  the  invitation  of  Talon,  a  great  council  of  northwest 
tribes  was  assembled  at  this  mission.  Here  was  St.  Lusson, 
the  secular  representative  of  Talon  and  the  king,  and  his  fifteen 
companions,  in  their  most  brilliant  military  dress.  Here,  in 
the  vestments  of  their  ofSce,  were  four  Jesuit  priests.  Here, 
also,  were  the  envoys  of  many  a  tribe,  from  forest  and  prairie, 
far  and  near.  The  background  of  the  strange  scene  was  the 
interminable  forest,  and  in  the  foreground  was  the  rapid  river, 
where  the  waters  of  an  inland  sea,  rushing  down  the  steep  in- 
cline,  lash   themselves   to    snowy  foam.     A  large    cross  was 


8AULT    STE.    MAKIE    RAPIDS. 

raised,  and  the  whole  company  of  the  French,  bowing  low  be- 
fore the  sacred  symbol,  chanted  the  ancient  hymn, — 

Vexilla  Regis  prodennt ; 
Fulget  crucis  mysterium. 

The  banners  of  Heaven's  King  advance ; 
The  mystery  of  the  Cross  shines  forth. 

To  a  cedar  post  beside  the  cross  was  affixed  a  metal  plate,  en- 
graved with  the  royal  arms  of  France.  In  feudal  ceremonial, 
St.  Lusson,  raising  a  sod  of  earth  in  one  hand  and  his  sword  in 
the  other,  took  possession  of  the  whole  vast  region  in  the 
name  of  his  sovereign  lord,  Louis  XIV.  Of  the  proud  do- 
minion so  vauntingly  proclaimed,  naught  now  remains  save  the 


ROYAL    GOVERXMEXT.  127 

name  of  some  French  Saint  or  Sieur  given  to  lake  or  river,  — 
this  and  nothing  more. 

The  further  exploration  of  the  far  AYest,  which  Talon  had 
already  projected,  and  for  the  accomplishment  of  which  he 
had  already  selected  the  agents,  was  to  be  the  crowning  glory 
of  a  succeeding  administration. 

In  the  desolate  regions  around  Hudson's  Bay,  the  indefati- 
gable Intendant  also  asserted  the  sovereignty  of  France  against 
the  claims  of  the  British.  Trading-posts  had  been  established 
by  the  English  at  the  mouth  of  the  lonely  arctic  rivers,  whose 
names,  Eupert,  Albany,  and  Churchill,  commemorate  the  aus- 
pices under  which  they  were  founded.  In  1671,  the  Jesuit 
Albanel,  with  two  civil  commissioners,  penetrated  the  gloomy 
gorge  of  the  Saguenay,  to  Lake  St.  John.  Wintering  here,  in 
the  following  spring  they  crossed  the  water- shed  between  the 
St.  Lawrence  and  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  on  the  shores  of  the 
vast  and  lonely  Hudson's  Bay,  in  the  presence  of  delegates 
a  from  dozen  savage  tribes,  took  jDOssession  of  the  country  in 
the  name  of  the  King  of  France. 

Even  on  the  bleak  coasts  of  Newfoundland  the  authority  of 
of  France  was  maintained.  These  shores  were  early  visited 
by  the  shipping  of  almost  every  European  nation,  engaged  in 
gathering  the  rich  harvest  of  the  sea  upon  its  foggy  banks. 
The  English  had  made  a  few  fishing  settlements,  as  St.  John's, 
and  at  Conception  Bay,  where  the  London  and  Bristol  Com- 
pany, of  which  Lord  Bacon  was  a  member,  had  planted  a  col- 
ony as  early  as  1616.  The  jurisdiction  of  the  coast  was  given 
to  a  British  officer,  Captain  Whitburn, —  "the  first  of  those 
« Fishing  Admirals,'  as  they  were  called,  who  governed  the 
island  from  their  vessel's  deck."  In  1622,  Lord  Baltimore  or- 
ganized, upon  the  south  and  east  coast  of  the  island,  the 
province  of  Avalon,  but  soon  forsook  it  for  the  more  genial 
climate  and  fertile  soil  of  JMarylaud. 

The  French  had  formed  a  settlement  at  the  Bay  of  Plaisance, 
or  Placeutia,  which,  however,  had  remained  in  the  hands  of 
private  parties ;  but  during  the  period  of  which  we  write,  the 


128  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

king  sent  out  a  militaiy  officer,  Sieur  de  Pojps,  to  hold  it  for 
the  crown. 

In  the  midst  of  the  great  exploits  and  vast  schemes  just 
described,  the  government  of  Canada  passed  from  the  hands  of 
Courcelles  and  Talon  into  those  of  successors  well  adapted  to 
carry  out  their  designs.  In  1672,  on  the  plea  of  ill-health,  the 
Governor  sought  permission  to  return,  and  Talon,  doubtless 
foreseeing  the  probability  of  collision  with  the  fiery  Frontenac, 
also  requested  his  own  recall. 


DISCOVERT  OF  THE   GREAT  WEST.  129 


CHAPTER  X. 

DISCOVERY  OF  THE   GREAT  WEST. 

Frontonac,  Governor,  1672  —  Joliet  and  Marquette  Discover  the  Mississippi, 
1673  —  La  Salle  —  Founding  of  Fort  Frontenac  —  La  Sallo's  Explorations 
—  Launch  of  the  "Griffin,"  1679  —  Cr5vecoeur  —  La  Salle's  Winter  March  to 
Canada  —  Mutiny  —  Tonti  —  Hennepin  Explores  the  Upper  Mississippi  — 
La  Salle  Reaches  the  Mouth  of  Mississippi,  1682  —  Visits  France  —  Attempts 
to  Colonize  Louisiana  — Loss  of  the  "  Aimable  "  and  "  Belle"  —  Disasters  at 
Fort  St.  Louis  —  Futile  Attempts  to  Reach  Canada  —  Assassination  of  La 
Salle,  1687  —  Tragic  Fate  of  the  Texan  Colony. 

IN  the  year  1672,  Louis  de  Buade,  Count  de  Frontenac,  was 
appointed  Governor,  and  M.  Duchesneau,  Intendant  of 
Canada.  Frontenac  was  a  gallant  soldier,  of  old  and  noble 
family,  and  characterized  in  a  remarkable  degree  by  both  the 
virtues  and  vices  of  the  haughty  race  from  which  he  sprang. 
He  was  alternately  condescending  and  overbearing,  generous 
and  jealous,  magnanimous  and  irascible,  pious  and  vindictive. 
He  was  already  a  lieutenant-general,  had  shone  in  courts,  and 
was  versed  in  books.  He  proved  no  less  a  successful  leader  in 
savage  than  in  civilized  warfare,  and  was  more  than  a  match  in 
political  cunning  for  the  Machiavellis  of  the  forest.  His  im- 
perious temper  soon  involved  him  in  disputes  with  both  Bishop 
and  Intendant,  and  rendered  his  whole  administration  one  of 
tumult  and  strife. 

The  chief  glory  of  Frontenac's  administration,  was  the  spirit 
of  daring  exploration  and  discovery,  by  which  it  was  character- 
ized. In  this  respect  it  but  followed  out  the  wise  principles 
and  projects  of  Talon.  That  able  administrator  had  already, 
before  his  resignation  ot  office,  committed  to  zealous  asfents 
the  task  of  discovering  the  great  river  of  the  West,  described 
by  the  Indian  neophytes  of  the  mission  of  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  as 
flowing  through  a  vast  and  fertile  region,  from  north  to  south, 
and  by  them  named  the  Mechasepe,  or,  as  some  called  it,  the 
17 


130  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

Mississippi.  To  the  adventures  of  Louis  Joliet  and  James 
Marquette,  in  solving  this  important  problem,  we  must  devote 
a  few  paragraphs. 

Joliet  was  the  first  native  Canadian  whose  name  was  to  be- 
come conspicuous  in  the  annals  of  his  country.  He  was  born 
in  Quebec,  in  1645.  He  was  educated  by  the  Jesuits,  and, 
while  very  young,  resolved  to  become  a  priest.  At  the  age  of 
seventeen,  he  received  the  tonsure  and  the  minor  orders.  He 
soon,  however,  abandoned  thought  of  the  priesthood  and  be- 
came a  fur  trader.  He  was  selected  by  Talon  to  explore  the 
copper  mines  of  Lake  Superior  in  1669,  and  afterwards  to  join 
Marquette  in  the  search  for  the  Mississippi. 

Marquette,  as  w^e  have  seen,  was  one  of  the  devoted  band  of 
Jesuit  missionaries  who  toiled  among  the  Indians  on  the  shores 
of  lakes  Superior  and  Michigan.  He  was  joined  by  Joliet  at 
the  mission  of  St.  Ignace,  on  the  Straits  of  Michillimackinac. 
On  the  17th  of  iNIay,  1673,  in  two  bark  canoes,  with  five 
men,  they  set  out  on  their  eventful  journey.  Coasting  the 
shores  of  Green  Bay,  they  reached  the  Fox  River.  Ascending 
this  stream  for  many  miles,  they  crossed  a  difficult  portage  to 
the  Wisconsin  River,  and  glided  dow^n  its  gentle  current  to  the 
mighty  Father  of  "Waters.  Day  after  day  they  sailed  down  the 
solitary  stream  for  over  a  thousand  miles,  past  the  rushing  Mis- 
souri, the  turbid  Ohio,  and  the  sluggish  Arkansas.  Learning 
that  the  mighty  river  flowed  onward  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
and  fearing  that  they  would  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  Spaniards, 
—  more  to  be  feared  than  the  pagan  of  the  wilderness, —  they 
toilfully  retraced  their  way  to  the  mouth  of  the  Illinois. 
Threading  that  stream  they  reached  the  site  of  Chicago,  and 
sailed  up  Lake  Michigan.  Joliet  hastened  to  Quebec  to  tell  the 
story  of  the  fair  and  virgin  lands  of  the  Far  West,  while  Mar- 
quette remained  to  preach  the  Gospel  to  his  beloved  Miamis. 
Two  years  later,  while  on  a  preaching  excursion,  feeling  his  end 
to  be  near,  though  only  in  his  thirty-eighth  year,  Marquette  built 
a  small  booth  of  branches,  and,  requesting  to  be  left  to  his  devo- 
tions, died,  like  the  heroic  missionary  explorer,  Livingstone, 
while  hoidins:  communion  with  his  Maker.     The  beautiful  river 


DISCOVERT  OF  THE    GREAT    WEST.  131 

and  the  busy  town  that  bear  his  name  perpetuate  the  memory 
of  the  discoverer  of  the  Great  West. 

Joliet's  tidings  excited  a  profound  interest  in  Canada.  His 
dauntless  enterprise  led  him  subsequently  to  make  an  overland 
journey  to  Hudson's  Bay,  and  to  explore  the  coasts  of  Labra- 
dor. He  received  a  grant  of  the  Island  of  Anticosti,  M-here  he 
died  in  1701.  A  county  in  his  native  province,  and  a  mountain 
and  cit}''  in  Illinois,  commemorate  his  fame. 

Still  another  name  was  destined  to  be  forever  identified  with 
the  early  exploration  of  the  ^Mississippi, —  that  of  La  Salle. 
Rol)ert  Cavelier,  Sieur  de  la  Salle,  was  the  heir  of  a  wealth}- 
burgher  of  Rouen,  but  he  had  forfeited  his  inheritance  by  en- 
tering a  Jesuit  seminary.  His  active  spirit,  however,  was  ill- 
adapted  for  scholastic  life,  and,  leavin*  the  seminary,  he  sailed 
for  Canada,  to  seek  his  fortune  in  the  wilderness.  He  received 
from  the  Sulpitian  Fathers  of  Montreal,  a  grant  of  land  at  the 
head  of  the  rapids  above  the  city.  Here  he  planted  a  trading- 
post,  to  which  was  subsequently  given  the  name,  either  seri- 
ously or  in  derision,  of  La  Chine,  as  if  it  were  the  first  stage 
on  the  way  to  China,  in  allusion  to  La  Salle's  idea  that  that 
country  could  be  reached  by  following,  westward,  the  water- 
ways across  the  continent. 

Impelled  by  this  idea.  La  Salle  longed  to  explore  the  Far 
"West,  of  which,  even  before  Joliet's  revelation,  such  exciting 
rumours  had  reached  his  eager  ears.  Having  re-sold  to  the 
Seminary  of  St.  Sulpice  his  seigneury  at  La  Chine,  he  joined, 
in  the  summer  of  1669,  a  company  of  Sulpitian  priests  who  had 
resolved  to  emulate  in  the  wilderness,  the  missionary  zeal  of 
their  rivals,  the  Jesuits.  With  four  and  twenty  men,  in  seven 
canoes,  they  left  La  Chine  on  the  6th  of  July.  A  month  of 
arduous  toil  was  consumed  in  overcoming  the  rapids  of  the  St. 
Lawrence,  and  reaching  Lake  Ontario.  Failing  to  procure  a 
guide  in  the  Seneca  country,  the  adventurers  pressed  on  to  the 
head  of  Lake  Ontario.  Here  they  were  met  by  Joliet  on  his 
return  from  his  Lake  Superior  exploration,  and  the  Sulpitian 
Fathers  decided  to  visit  the  tribes  on  that  gi-eat  "  unsaltedsea." 
following  the  route  shown  on  a  map  given  them  by  Joliet.     La 


132  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

Salle,  on  the  contrary,  determined  to  solve  the  geographical 
problem  of  the  West,  and  feigned  sickness  in  order  to  part 
company  from  the  Sulpitians  without  an  open  rupture.  The 
latter  pressed  on  by  way  of  the  Grand  Eiver,  lakes  Erie  and 
Huron,  to  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  wintering  near  Long  Point,  on 
1670.  Lake  Erie,  and  taking  i^ossession  of  the  country  in  the 
name  of  the  King  of  France.  Having  apparently  lost  their 
missionary  zeal,  they  returned,  after  three  days  sojourn  at 
the  Sault,  by  way  of  French  River,  Lake  Nipissing,  and  the 
Ottawa,  to  Montreal. 

The  movements  of  La  Salle  during  this  time  are  involved  in 
obscurity.  It  appears  that  he  reached  the  Ohio,  and,  possibly, 
the  following  season.  Lake  Michigan  and  the  Wisconsin ;  but 
it  is  not  certain  that  at  that  time  he  discovered  the  Mississippi, 
although  it  has  been  claimed  that  he  did. 

One  of  the  first  acts  of  Frontenac,  the  new  Governor,  in  pur- 
suance of  the  design  ©f  Courcelles,  was  the  planting  of  a  fort 
and  trading-post  at  the  foot  of  Lake  Ontario,*  both  long  known 
l)y  his  name,  in  order  to  check  the  interference  of  the  English 
from  Albany  and  New  York  with  the  fur-trade  of  the  Indian 
allies  of  the  French,  and  to  prevent  the  inroads  of  the  Iroquois 
in  the  event  of  war.  The  merchants  of  Montreal,  Three 
Rivers,  and  Quebec  were  exceedingly  jealous  of  the  establish- 
ment of  the  fort,  from  a  well-grounded  apprehension  that  it 
would  seriously  aflfect  their  profits,  by  intercepting  no  small 
share  of  the  lucrative  fur-trade.  Frontenac,  however,  by  an 
imperious  exercise  of  the  royal  authority,  commanded  the 
inhabitants  of  these  settlements  to  furnish,  at  their  own  cost, 
a  number  of  armed  men  and  canoes  for  that  very  purpose.  In 
1673.  the  month  of  June,  he  collected,  at  Montreal,  a  force  of 
four  hundred  men,  including  mission  Indians,  with  a  hundred 
and  twenty  canoes,  and  two  large  flat-boats.  These  last  he 
caused  to  be  painted  with  glaring  devices  of  red  and  blue, 
in  order  to  dazzle  the  Iroquois  by  a  display  of  unaccustomed 
magnificence. 

Frontenac  infused  his  own  indomitable  energy  into  his  little 
•■  *  Where  KiujistoD  now  stands. 


DISCOVERT  OF  THE   GREAT  WEST.  133 

army.  In  tw^o  Aveeks  they  had  overcome,  with  incredible  toil, 
the  difficulties  of  the  rapids  and,  threading  the  lovely  mazes  of 
the  Thousand  Islands,  reached  the  waters  of  Lake  Ontario. 
Frontenac  had  previously  dispatched  La  Salle,  who  had  re- 
turned from  his  first  expedition  to  the  West,  and  in  whom  he 
discerned  a  spirit  kindred  to  his  own,  to  summon  deputies  from 
the  Iroquois  towns  to  meet  him  at  Cataraqui,  the  destined  site 
of  the  new  fort.  A  large  number  of  Iroquois  were  already  en- 
camped when  Frontenac  approached.  Forming  his  little  flotilla 
in  battle  array,  he  advanced  with  much  military  jDomp,  and 
landed  near  the  site  of  the  present  city  of  Kingston.*  Bivouac 
fires  were  soon  lighted,  guards  set,  and  the  "  qui  vive"  of  the 
French  sentry  was  heard  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Ontario. 

The  next  morning,  with  roll  of  drums  and  much  presenting 
of  arms,  the  Iroquois  deputies  were  conducted,  between  glit- 
tering files  of  soldiers,  to  the  presence  of  the  Governor  and 
his  staff,  who  were  arrayed  in  their  most  brilliant  uniforms. 
The  stately  manners  and  masterful  address  of  Frontenac, —  a 
born  ruler  of  men,  by  turns  haughty  and  condescending,  impe- 
rious, and  winning, —  impressed  the  savages  with  respect,  con- 
fidence, and  good-will  no  less  than  did  the  splendour  of  his 
appearance  and  retinue. 

"  Children  !  "  he  said, —  not  "  brothers,"  as  the  French  had 
previously  called  them, —  "  I  am  glad  to  see  you.  You  did  well 
to  obey  the  command  of  your  Father.  Take  courage  ;  you 
shall  hear  his  word,  which  is  full  of  peace  and  tenderness." 

He  then  magnified  the  power  of  the  French,  and,  pointing  to 
the  cannon  of  his  brilliantly  painted  flat-boats,  admonished 
them  of  the  consequences  of  disobeying  his  commands.  He 
set  forth  the  advantages  of  his  friendship,  and  of  the  establish- 
ment of  the  new  trading-post,  and  urged  the  claims  of  the 
Christian  religion,  both  by  its  terrors  and  its  rewards.  The 
speech  was  accompanied  by  politic  presents, —  "  six  fathoms  of 
tobacco,"  guns  for  the  men,  and  prunes  and  raisins  for  the 
women  and  children,  and  generous  feasts  for  all. 

*  On  the  point  to  the  west  of  the  Cataraqui  Bridge,  at  present  occupied  by 
the  barracks. 


134  IIISTCRY   OF  CAN'ADA. 

Meanwhile  the  construction  of  the  fort  went  rapidly  forward. 
Trees  were  felled,  trenches  dug,  and  palisades  planted,  with  a 
speed  that  astonished  the  indolent  Indians.  In  ten  days  the 
fort  was  nearly  completed,  and  leaving  a  sufficient  force  for  its 
defence,  by  the  1st  of  August  Frontenac  reached  IMontreal. 
The  grasp  of  a  master's  hand  was  felt.  France  held  the  key  of 
the  great  lakes. 

The  royal  treasury  was  low,  and  the  pleasure-loving  sover- 
eign preferred  to  lavish  its  resources  in  court  dissipations  rather 
than  in  maintaining  a  fort  in  the  heart  of  the  wilderness.  The 
1674.  proposal  of  La  Salle,  who  had  gone  to  France  to  urge 
his  suit,  to  re-imburse  the  cost  of  building  Fort  Frontenac, 
and  to  maintain  it  at  his  own  expense,  in  consideration  of  ob- 
taining the  privilege  of  the  fur  trade,  was  therefore  accepted. 
He  accordingly  received  the  seigneury  of  Fort  Frontenac,  with 
its  adjacent  lands,  and  was  soon  able  to  raise  .large  sums  of 
money  for  the  accomplishment  of  his  designs.  He  rebuilt  the 
wooden  fort  of  Frontenac  in  stone,  and  constructed,  for  the 
prosecution  of  his  fur  trade,  four  small  decked  vessels,  the  first 
that  ever  floated  on  the  waters  of  Ontario. 

But  he  nursed  a  nobler  ambition  in  his  soul  than  that  of  l)e- 
ing  a  successful  fur  trader,  an  ambition  which  was  fanned  to  a 
still  more  ardent  flame  by  the  glory  of  Joliet's  discovery. 
Again  visiting  France,  in  1678,  he  obtained,  through  the  in- 
fluence of  Colbert,  a  royal  commission  for  exploration  in  the 
Far  West,  with  authority  to  erect  forts,  and  a  monopoly  of  the 
traffic  in  buffiilo-skins.  Having  engaged  some  thirty  followers, 
and  procured  a  supply  of  anchors,  cables,  rigging,  tools,  and 
merchandise,  he  sailed  for  Canada.  Among  his  followers  was 
one  who  proved  of  vast  service  in  the  execution  of  his  bold 
designs,  —  Henri  de  Tonti,  an  ItaUan  officer,  of  dauntless 
daring  and  miflinching  fidelity.  He  had  lost  a  hand  by  the 
ex^Dlosion  of  a  grenade,  and  wore  an  iron  substitute,  which  he 
sometimes  used  with  striking  efiect  upon  the  astonished  Indians. 
Another  of  La  Salle's  companions  in  exploration,  was  Father 
Hennepin,  a  Recollet  friar,  a  man  of  great  courage,  but  also 
of  intense  vanity,  and,   in  the  narration  of  his  exploits,   of 


DISCOVERT  OF  THE   GREAT   WEST.  135 

unl)lusliing  exaggeration,  not  to  say  mendacity.  The  Sicur  do 
la  IMotte,  an  intelligent  Frenchman,  was  also  an  efficient  ally. 

On  the  18th  of  November,  a  cold  and  gusty  day,  La  ]\Iotte, 
Hennepin,  and  sixteen  others,  left  Fort  Frontenac  in  a  little 
vessel  of  ten  tons  for  the  Niagara  River.  Plugging  the  northern 
shore  of  Lake  Ontario,  in  ten  days  they  reached  an  Indian  town, 
not  far  from  the  site  of  Toronto,  and  took  refuge  in  the  mouth 
of  the  Ilumljer,  where  they  were  frozen  in.  Cutting  their  way 
out  of  the  ice,  on  the  5th  of  December,  they  crossed  the  win- 
try lake  to  the  Niagara,  which  they  ascended  as  far  as  the 
rapids  at  Queenston.  Skirting  the  cliff  above  the  rugged  gorge, 
the  explorers  beheld,  amid  its  setting  of  sombre  forest,  the 
virgin  loveliness  of  the  great  cataract.  Hennepin's  account 
and  sketch  of  the  Falls  are  graphic,  though  exaggerated.  The 
party  returned  to  the  mouth  of  the  river,  and  began  the  con- 
struction of  a  fort.  So  intense  was  the  cold,  that  they  had  to 
thaw  the  frozen  ground  with  hot  water,  before  they  could  plant 
the  palisades.  Li  order  to  conciliate  the  Seneca  Licliaus,  who 
controlled  the  portage,  and  to  obtain  permission  to  maintain 
the  fort,  La  Motte  and  Hennepin  set  out  on  a  journey  to  the 
chief  town  of  the  tribe,  beyond  the  Genesee  River,  which  they 
reached  on  the  last  day  of  the  year.  The  Senecas  accepted 
their  gifts,  but  gave  evasive  answers  to  their  petition,  icto. 
and  the  disappointed  ambassadors  returned,  foot-worn  and 
weary,  to  the  Niagara. 

La  Salle  had  set  sail  a  few  days  after  La  Motte.  Already 
misfortune  began  to  dog  his  footsteps,  and  his  vessel  was 
wrecked  some  thirty  miles  west  of  the  Niagara  River,  with  the 
loss  of  all  his  provisions  and  merchandise.  During  the  winter. 
La  Salle,  with  two  companions,  returned,  on  foot,  through  the 
snow-encumbered  woods,  to  Fort  Frontenac,  for  additional  naval 
supplies.  Their  bag  of  parched  corn  foiled  them  on  the  way, 
and  for  two  clays  they  journeyed  fasting. 

An  essential  part  of  the  enterprise,  was  the  construction  of 
a  vessel  above  the  Falls.  All  the  ropes  and  rigging  rescued 
from  the  wreck,  -were  therefore  carried  over  the  steep  and 
rugged  portage,  extending  from  Lewiston  to  Cayuga  Creek,  a 


136  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

distance  of  twelve  miles,  Hennepin  carrying  on  his  shoulders 
his  portable  altar  and  its  furniture. 

Here,  amid  short  allowance  of  food  and  many  other  priva- 
tions, which  were  not  compensated  by  the  frequent  masses  and 
homilies  of  Hennepin,  the  little  company  toiled  at  the  construc- 
tion of  a  vessel.  Its  huge  ribs  so  j^rovoked  at  once  the  aston- 
ishment and  jealousy  of  the  neighbouring  Indians  that,  as  a 
squaw  informed  the  French,  they  determined  to  burn  it  on  the 
stocks.  In  the  spring,  however,  it  was  sufficiently  advanced 
for  launching,  which  ceremony  took  place  amid  the  chanting  of 
the  Te  Deum  and  salvos  of  miniature  artillery.  The  armament 
of  five  small  cannon  made  the  vessel  an  effective  floating  fort. 
It  received  the  name  of  the  "  Griffin,"  from  the  armorial  bear- 
ings of  Frontenac,  and  bore,  carved  upon  the  prow,  the  effigy 
of  that  fabulous  creature. 

Not  till  the  month  of  August  did  La  Salle  return  to  Niagara. 
Incited  by  his  enemies,  his  creditors  had  seized  his  property 
lor  debts,  which  his  seigneury  would  amply  have  discharged. 
But  his  great  enterprise  might  not  brook  delay,  and  with  his 
usual  fortitude,  he  submitted  to  the  blow. 

On  the  7th  of  August,  the  "Griffin,"  a  goodly  craft,  of 
forty-five  tons  burden,  spread  her  wings  to  the  breeze,  and, 
stemming  the  rapid  current,  entered  Lake  Erie.  In  three 
weeks,  the  pioneer  mariners  of  the  inland  seas,  thirty-four  in 
all,  reached  the  Michillimackinac  mission,  at  the  entrance  to 
Lake  Michigan,  having  escaped  a  violent  storm  on  Lake  Hu- 
ron. The  strange  apparition  of  the  winged  vessel,  and  boom- 
ing cannon,  everywhere  produced  surprise  and  consternation. 
La  Salle  freighted  the  "  Griffin"  with  a  cargo  of  furs  in  order 
to  appease  the  clamours  of  his  creditors,  and  sent  her  back  to 
Niagara.  She  must  have  foundered  in  an  autumnal  storm,  as 
she  was  never  heard  of  again. 

Weary  of  waiting  her  return,  he  resolved  to  explore  the  in- 
terior. With  Hennepm,  Tonti,  and  thirty  men,  by  the  end  of 
December,  after  many  privations  and  adventures,  he  reached 
Lake  Peoria,  in  the  heart  of  the  populous  country  of  the  Illi- 
nois.    Here,  amid  the  despondency,  mutiny,  and  desertion  of 


DISCOVERT   OF  THE    GREAT   WEST.  137 

his  men,  he  built  a  fort,  to  "svhich,  in  alhision  to  his  disfistcrs 
and  disappointments,  he  gave  the  name  of  Crevecoeur, —  Heart- 
break. Despatching  Hennepin  to  explore  the  upper  igso. 
waters  of  the  Mississippi,  and  having  seen  well  advanced  the 
construction  of  a  vessel  of  forty  tons  burden,  in  which  he  pur- 
posed descending  the  great  river  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and 
sailing  to  the  AVest  Indies,  the  intrepid  pioneer  set  out,  on 
the  3d  of  ]\Iarch,  with  five  companions,  through  wintry  snows 
and  pathless  woods,  to  Fort  Frontenac,  more  than  a  thousand 
miles  distant,  in  order  to  procure  stores,  anchors,  and  rigging 
for  his  new  vessel. 

The  hardships  of  that  terrible  journey  were  almost  unpar- 
alleled. The  streams  were  impeded  with  floating  ice,  and  the 
travellers  had  frequently  to  break  a  way  for  their  canoe  with 
axes,  or  to  drag  it  for  leagues  through  marsh  or  forest  encmn- 
bered  with  melting  snow.  They  were  at  length  compelled  to 
abandon  it  altogether,  and  laden  with  arms,  ammunition, 
blanket,  and  kettle,  to  wade,  knee-deep,  through  slush,  or 
inundated  meadows.  Game  was  scarce,  and  the  pangs  of 
hunger  were  added  to  the  sufferings  of  fatigue.  The  Indians, 
too,  were  hostile.  For  days.  La  Salle  and  his  companions 
were  dogged  by  a  war-party,  and  dared  not  light  a  fire  at  night 
to  dry  their  saturated  clothes.  Snow,  sleet,  and  rain,  piercing 
winds  and  bitter  cold,  and  weary  marches  through  the  woods, 
.  wore  down  their  failing  strength.  Fever,  cold,  and  spitting  of 
blood  attacked  several  of  the  Frenchmen,  and  even  the  Indian 
guide.  On  Easter  Monday,  they  reached  the  fort  on  the 
Niagara,  where  the  "  Griffin"  had  been  launched. 

La  Salle  alone,  sustained  by  his  indomitable  energy,  was 
capable  of  a  further  journey.  But  it  was  necessary  for  him  to 
hasten  on  to  Fort  Frontenac.  Tidings  of  disaster  awaited  him. 
Besides  the  confirmation  of  the  loss  of  the  "  Griffin,"  with  her 
valuable  lading,  he  learned  that  a  ship  from  France,  freighted 
with  his  goods,  valued  at  over  twenty-two  thousand  livres,  had 
baen  totally  wrecked  in  the  St.  Lawrence.  His  agents  had 
plundered  him,  his  property  had  been  seized  for  debt,  and 
several  of  his  canoes,  with  rich  lading  of  furs,  had  been  lost  in 
18 


138  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

the  rapids.  Still  his  unconquerable  will  overcame  every 
obstacle.  He  obtained  in  Montreal,  the  needed  supplies  and 
recruits  for  his  great  expedition,  and  "was  on  the  eve  of  setting 
out  from  Fort  Frontenac  on  his  return  to  Crevecoeur,  -when  a 
more  crushing  blow  fell  upon  him  than  any  he  had  yet  re- 
ceived. 

Two  yoyageurs  arrived,  bringing  a  letter  from  Tonti,  his 
faithful  Italian  lieutenant,  which  stated  that,  shortly  after  La 
Salle's  departure,  the  turbulent  garrison  of  Crevecoeur  had 
mutinied,  plundered  the  stores,  destroyed  the  fort,  and  thrown 
into  the  river  the  arms  and  goods  they  could  not  carry  off. 
They  also  seized,  at  Michillimackinac,  a  quantity  of  furs  belong- 
ing to  La  Salle,  and  plundered  his  forts  on  Lake  jMichlgan,  and 
at  Niagara.  Part  of  the  rascal  crew  then  fled  to  the  English  at 
Albany,  and  the  rest,  twelve  in  number,  were  advancing  to 
Fort  Frontenac  to  murder  its  seigneur.  La  Salle  only  braced 
himself  for  fresh  energies.  With  nine  trusty  men,  he  pro- 
ceeded to  intercept  the  mutineers.  After  a  sharp  resistance,  in 
which  two  were  slain,  the  survivors  were  captured  and  conveyed 
to  Fort  Frontenac,  therato  await  their  trial. 

La  Salle's  cherished  enterprise  seemed  now  utterly  wrecked. 
Yet,  he  did  not  despair.  On  the  10th  of  August,  he  again  set 
out  for  the  country  of  the  Ilhnois,  with  a  company  of  twenty- 
five  men.  This  time,  he  went  by  a  new  route.  He  ascended 
the  Humber,  from  Lake  Ontario,  and,  crossing  a  portage  to 
the  Holland  Elver,  reached  Lake  Simcoe,  and  then  descended 
the  Severn  to  Lake  Huron.  Skirting  the  IManitouliu  Islands, 
he  hastened  on  with  seven  men,  by  way  of  Lake  INIichigan 
and  the  Joseph,  Kankeekee,  and  Illinois  rivers  to  Crevecoeur, 
leaving  the  rest  of  his  force  to  follow.  Here  a  scene  of  horror 
awaited  him.  The  great  Illinois  town  of  seven  or  eight  thou- 
sand inhal)itants,  near  which  the  fort  was  built,  was  a  desolation 
of  blackened  embers,  hideous  with  charred  bodies,  rifled  from 
the  Indian  graves,  and  half  devoured  by  wolves  and  buzzards, 
—  on  every  side  was  evidence  of  massacre  and  havoc.  The 
fort  was  utterl}^  demolished,  although  the  vessel  still  lay  upon 
the  stocks  ;  but  no  signs  of  Tonti,  or  of  his  companions,  could 


DISCOVERT  OF  THE   GREAT  WEST.  139 

be  found.  La  Salle,  therefore,  disheartened,  but  not  despair- 
ing, retraced  his  steps  to  his  fort  of  St.  Joseph,  where  he  gath- 
ered his  men  about  him  and  awaited  intelligence  of*  his  lost 
lieutenant. 

The  story  of  that  hero's  adventures  is  one  of  tragic  interest. 
After  the  flight  of  the  mutineers,  he,  with  his  little  band  of 
Frenchmen,  seven  in  all,  removed  to  the  Indian  town,  in  order 
to  conciliate  its  inhabitants.  An  unexpected  storm  of  savage 
fury  l)urst  upon  this  forest  community.  The  ferocious  Iroquois, 
havins:  well-nio-h  exterminated  the  Hurons,  Erics,  and  An- 
dastes,  sought  new  tribes  to  conquer.  Five  hundred  painted 
warriors  made  their  way  through  pathless  forests,  from  the 
lovely  lakes  of  central  New  York,  to  the  fertile  prairies  of  the 
Illinois.  They  burst  like  a  hurricane  upon  the  hapless  town 
and  soon  made  of  a  populous  country  a  solitude.  Having  con- 
Cjuered  the  Illinois  warriors,  the  Iroquois  completed  their  vic- 
tory by  the  wanton  butchery  of  women  and  children,  and  the 
desecration  of  the  graves.  Tonti,  after  futile  efforts  to  medi- 
ate, in  which  he  was  nearly  slain,  was  only  able  to  save  his 
little  company  by  retreat  to  Green  Bay.  Indeed,  even  retreat 
did  not  save  them  all,  for  Father  Ribourde,  the  only  heir  of  a 
rich  Burgundian  house,  retiring  to  the  forest  to  recite  the  office 
of  his  breviary,  was  cut  off  by  a  band  of  prowling  savages. 

But  what,  meanwhile,  had  become  of  Father  Hennepin, 
whom,  as  we  have  seen,  La  Salle  had  sent  to  explore  the  Upper 
Mississippi?  The  unquestioned  courage  and  energy  of  that 
distinguished  pioneer,  were  unhappily  equalled  by  his  vanity 
and  mendacity.  Bating  all  exaggerations,  however,  it  appears 
that  he,  with  his  two  companions,  followed  the  course  of  the 
mighty  river  almost  to  its  source,  fiir  beyond  the  beautiful  Falls 
of  jNIinnehaha,  which  he  named  after  St.  Anthony  of  Padua. 
The  daring  explorers  were  captured  by  the  Sioux,  who  mani- 
fested the  same  intractaljle  spirit  that  still  characterizes  that 
tribe.  After  many  hardships,  they  made  their  escape,  and 
returned,  by  way  of  the  Wisconsin  and  the  lakes,  to  Canada, 
to  tell  their  remarkable  story. 

AVith  consummate  tact  and  eloquence  and  skill  in  the  man- 


140  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

agement  of  the  red  race,  La  Salle  organized  a  confederacy  of 
western  tribes,  as  a  bulwark  against  the  invading  Iroquois,  and 
as  the  allies  of  the  colony  and  trading-post,  which  he  purposed 
1681.  planting  on  the  Illinois.  To  appease  his  creditors,  and 
to  collect  means  for  carrying  out  his  project,  he  must  again 
visit  Canada.  Paddling  a  thousand  miles  in  a  frail  canoe,  he 
reached  Fort  Frontenac.  Obtaining  fresh  supplies  of  goods, 
arms,  and  ammunition,  by  mortgaging  his  already  heavily  en- 
cumbered seigneury,  he  returned  to  the  country  of  the  Illinois. 
1683.  With  his  faithful  lieutenant,  Tonti,  twenty-three  French- 
men, and  eighteen  Indians  with  their  squaws,  he  started  upon 
his  eventful  voyage  of  discovery.  Having  abandoned,  for  a 
time,  the  idea  of  building  a  vessel,  he  resolved  to  trust  to 
canoes.  It  was  midwinter,  and  the  canoes  and  stores  had  to 
be  dragged  for  some  distance  on  sledges  over  the  snow.  At 
length,  after  floating  down  the  tranquil  waters  of  the  Illinois, 
on  the  6th  of  February  the  frail  barks  were  launched  on  the 
broad  bosom  of  the  Mississippi.  For  sixty  days  they  glided 
down  the  giant  stream,  leaving  behind  the  icy  realm  of  winter, 
and  entering  the  genial  domain  of  spring.  Savage  tribes  were 
awed  by  displays  of  pov/er,  or  conciliated  by  the  bestowment  of 
gifts.  On  the  6th  of  April,  the  broad,  blue,  heaving  billows  of 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  burst  upon  their  view.  With  feudal  pomp 
and  religious  ceremony.  La  Salle  proclaimed  the  sovereignty  of 
Louis  le  Grand  over  the  vast  country  of  Louisiana, —  a  country 
emliracing  the  whole  mid-continent,  from  the  sources  of  the 
Missouri  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico ;  from  the  Alleghanies  to  the 
Eocky  Mountains.  The  gallant  explorer  joined  in  the  grand 
Te  Deum  and  Vexilla  Regis,  and  volleys  of  musketry,  and 
shouts  of  Vive  le  Roi,  confirmed  the  annexation  of  half  a  con- 
tinent to  the  domain  of  France.* 

La  Salle  now  set  his  face  northward,  eager  to  dispatch  the 
nev>^s  of  his  discovery  to  Canada,  and  to  France.  But  an  in- 
vasion of  the  Illinois  country  by  the  Iroquois  was  imminent. 
He  therefore  tarried  to  build,  with  vast  toil,  a  new  fort,  St. 

*  The  Ohio  and  the  Mississipiii  received  the  names  respectively  of  River  St. 
Louis  and  Eiver  Colbert. 


DISCOVERT  OF  THE   GREAT   WEST.  141 

Louis,  at  "  Starved  Rock,"  *  an  isolated  cliff,  with  steep  escarp- 
ments, overhanging  the  Illinois  River.  But  Frontenac  had 
been  re-called  from  the  government  of  Canada,  and  the  in- 
trigues of  La  Salle's  enemies,  led  by  La  Barre,  the  new  Gov- 
ernor, were  unrestrained.  His  discoveries  were  discredited,  his 
character  was  maligned,  his  scigneury  was  seized,  his  authority 
was  superseded,  he  was  summoned  to  Quebec,  and  an  officer 
was  sent  to  assume  command  of  his  new  fort,  St.  Louis. 

La  Salle  hastened  to  France  to  defend  himself  against  the 
accusations  of  his  enemies,  and  to  solicit  the  aid  of  the  Crown 
in  carrying  out  the  grand  emprise,  in  which  he  had  exhausted 
his  private  fortune.  In  his  memorial  to  the  King,  he  modestly 
sets  forth  his  claims  for  assistance.  "To  acquit  himself  of 
the  commission  with  which  he  was  charged,"  he  says,  writing 
of  himself  in  the  third  person,  "  he  had  neglected  all  his  pri- 
vate affairs,  because  they  were  alien  to  his  enterprise ;  he  had 
omitted  nothing  that  was  needful  to  its  success,  notwithstand- 
ing dangerous  illness,  heavy  losses,  and  all  the  other  evils  he 
had  suffered.  During  five  years,  he  had  made  five  journeys  of 
more,  in  all,  than  five  thousand  leagues,  for  the  most  part  on 
foot,  with  extreme  fatigue,  through  snow  and  through  water, 
without  escort,  without  provisions,  without  bread,  without 
wine,  without  recreation,  and  without  repose.  He  had  trav- 
ersed more  than  six  hundred  leagues  of  country,  hitherto  un- 
known, among  savage  and  cannibal  nations,  against  whom  he 
must  daily  make  fight,  though  accompanied  by  only  thirty-six 
men,  and  consoled  only  by  the  hope  of  succeeding  in  an  enter- 
prise which  he  thought  would  be  agreeable  to  his  majesty."  f 

Nor  were  these  statements,  as  we  have  seen,  exaggerations. 
He  had  expended  on  this  enterprise  one  hundred  and  fifty  thou- 
sand crowns,  and  was  now  so  impoverished  that,  unless  subsi- 
dized by  the  King,  his  lofty  projects  for  the  glory  of  France, 
and  extension  of  her  dominion,  must  fail.     He  therefore  asked 

*  So  named  from  being  the  last  refuge  of  a  party  of  Illinois,  who  were  starved 
to  death  by  their  enemies. 

t  Quoted  from  a  contemporary  document  by  Parkman,  "  Discovery  of  the 
Great  West,"  p.  302,  iwte. 


142  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

for  one  vessel  and  two  hundred  men  for  one  year,  in  which 
time  he  proposed  to  fortify  the  mouth  of  the  River  Colbert  or 
Mississippi,  thus  controlling  eight  hundred  leagues  of  inland 
navigation ;  to  organize  a  force  of  fifteen  thousand  savages ; 
1684.  and  to  attack  the  Spaniards  and  seize  the  rich  mines  of 
Mexico.  Dazzled  by  this  gigantic  scheme,  which  La  Salle 
must  have  known,  greatly  transcended  his  ability  to  execute, 
the  King  placed  at  his  disposal  four  vessels,  with  a  military 
force,  and  re-instated  him  in  possession  of  his  Canadian  seign- 
eury,  which,  it  will,  be  remembered,  had  been  seized  by  La 
Barre. 

On  the  1st  of  August,  the  ill-fated  expedition,  numbering, 
including  soldiers,  sailors,  and  settlers,  two  hundred  and  eighty 
in  all,  set  sail  from  Rochelle.  Beaujeu,  who  was  invested  with 
the  naval  command,  entertained  an  intense  jealousy  of  La 
Salle,  and  did  all  in  his  power  to  thwart  his  designs.  Many  of 
the  recruits  for  the  colony  were  beggars  and  vagabonds  from 
the  streets  of  Rochelle  and  Rochefort,  and  proved  turbulent  and 
mutinous.  When  the  fleet  reached  St.  Domingo,  fifty  men, 
on  board  the  "  Joly,"  the  principal  vessel,  were  sick.  La  Salle 
among  the  number.  Tossing  in  the  delirium  of  fever,  in  a 
wretched  garret,  under  a  tropical  sun,  he  well-nigh  lost  his 
life.  The  control  of  his  firm  hand  removed,  the  turbulent  col- 
onists became  utterly  demoralized ;  and  the  carping,  mousing, 
inefficient  Beaujeu  employed  himself  in  writing  censorious 
letters  to  the  minister  of  marine,  maligning  the  sick  man,  whose 
true  greatness  he  was  incapable  of  comprehending. 

After  a  month's  delay,  pale  and  haggard  and  weak.  La  Salle 
was  able  to  sail  again.  By  a  fatal  mistake,  the  little  fleet 
missed  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  and  sailed  some  two  hun- 
dred miles  to  the  west  of  it.  In  attempting  to  enter  Matagorda 
Bay,  on  the  Texan  coast,  the  "  Aimable,"  his  principal  store- 
ship,  was  wrecked.  La  Salle  thought  by  design,  on  a  sand-bar, 
with  the  loss  of  nearly  all  the  provisions,  arms,  ammunition, 
tools,  medicines,  baggage,  and  other  goods  —  a  blow  of  crushing 
calamity  to  the  infant  colony.  The  base-souled  and  treacherous 
Beaujeu,  to  whose  machinations  the  disaster  was  probably  due. 


DISCOVERT  OF  THE   GREAT  WEST.  143 

now  set  sail  and  abandoned  the  disheartened  settlers  to  their 
fate.  A  rude  redoubt  and  a  few  hovels  were  built  of  drift- 
wood and  fragments  of  the  wreck  upon  the  wild,  inhospitable 
shore,  named,  in  feudal  fealty,  St.  Louis, 

The  neighbouring  Indians  j)roved  hostile,  prowled  around 
the  frail  fort,  and  stole  some  of  the  goods  rescued  from  the 
wreck.  In  attempting  to  recover  them,  two  of  the  Frenchmen 
were  shiin.  Another  was  bitten  by  a  snake  and  died.  Two 
men,  preferring  the  risk  of  starving  on  the  prairie  to  the  hard- 
ships of  the  camp,  deserted.  Others  attempted  to  escape,  but 
were  caught,  and  one  was  hanged.  La  Salle  set  out  to  explore 
the  country.  A  conspiracy  to  murder  Joutel,  his  lieutenant, 
was  discovered  and  crushed.  La  Salle  returned  to  report  the 
disastrous  intelligence  that  they  were  far  from  the  INIississippi, 
the  goal  of  their  hopes.  Gloom,  and  almost  despair,  settled 
upon  every  soul  but  that  of  the  unconquerable  commander. 
During  the  summer,  more  than  thirty  of  the  colonists  died,  and 
many  of  the  survivors  were  smitten  with  mortal  illness. 

It  was  absolutely  necessary  to  find  the  Mississippi.  La  Salle, 
therefore,  on  the  1st  of  November,  set  out  in  quest  of  that 
"fatal  river."  Five  weary  months  dragged  on,  when,  one 
day,  seven  or  eight  travel-worn  men,  with  patched  and  tattered 
clothing,  appeared  before  the  fort.  They  were  La  Salle  lese. 
and  his  companions  in  misfortune.  He  had  failed  in  the  object 
of  his  search,  and  the  "  Belle,"  a  little  vessel  on  which  he  had 
depended  for  the  transport  of  his  colony  to  the  ]\Iississippi,  was 
-vvTecked,  with  the  loss  of  many  lives,  and  of  all  his  papers, 
and  the  bulk  of  the  stores,  ammunition,  and  tools  rescued  from 
the  "  Aimable." 

La  Salle  now  made  the  desperate  resolve  to  attempt  an  over- 
land journey  to  Canada,  for  succours  for  his  ill-starred  colony. 
Having  patched  their  ragged  clotliing  with  deer  or  buffalo^kins, 
after  mass  and  prayers,  the  forlorn  hope,  each  man  bearing  his 
pack  and  weapons,  set  forth  on  their  long  and  perilous  route. 
Six  months  more  dragged  their  weary  length  along,  when  La 
Salle  once  more  appeared  at  his  Texan  fort,  wasted  with  fever, 
worn  with  fatigue,  and  again  baffled  in  his  attempt  to  reach  the 


144  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

"  fatal  river,"  as  by  common  consent  the  Mississippi  was 
called.  Of  twenty  men  who  had  gone  out  with  him,  but  eight 
returned.  Four  had  deserted,  the"*  rest  had  succumbed  to  the 
perils  of  the  journey. 

The  condition  of  the  colony  was  now  desperate.  Of  over 
two  hundred  settlers  only  forty  remained  alive,  several  of  whom 
were  women  and  children,  and  most  of  the  men  were  com- 
pletely demoralized  by  treachery,  mutiny,  vice,  or  disease.  La 
Salle  alone,  by  his  unconquerable  will  and  audacity  of  hope, 
curbed  their  turbulent  spirits  and  saved  them  from  despair.  A 
dreary  Christmas  and  Twelfth  Xight,  were  celebrated  with  fes- 
1687.  tive  cups  filled  with  water  instead  of  wine.  A  journey 
to  Canada  was  clearly  the  only  resort.  The  sails  of  the 
"Belle"  were  cut  up  to  make  clothing  for  the  travellers,  and 
after  midnight  mass,  and  bitter  parting  of  sighs  and  tears,  and 
last,  long  embraces.  La  Salle  and  twenty  men  started  on  the 
fatal  journey,  soon  to  end,  for  him  and  others,  in  disaster  and 
death. 

Among  his  followers,  were  some  turbulent  spirits, —  ex-buc- 
caneers, and  the  like, —  who  ill-brooked  the  restraints  of  his 
rigorous  discipline,  and  resented  his  stern  and  haughty  manner. 
A  nephew  of  the  great  explorer,  a  hot-headed  youth,  also  pro- 
voked their  malice  by  his  imperious  and  inconsiderate  conduct. 
It  was  resolved  by  the  mutineers  to  murder  both  uncle  and 
nephew,  and  their  most  attached  followers  ;  and,  throwing  off  the 
restraints  of  civilization,  to  join  some  Indian  tribe,  and  share 
their  savage  life. 

La  Salle  seemed  to  have  a  presentiment  of  his  fate.  "  On 
the  day  of  his  death,"  writes  the  Recollet  friar,  who  witnessed 
his  assassination,  "he  spoke  to  me  of  nothing  but  matters  of 
piety,  grace,  and  predestination ;  enlarging  on  the  debt  he 
owed  to  God,  who  had  saved  him  from  so  many  perils  during 
more  than  twenty  years  of  travel  in  America."  His  nephew 
and  two  faithful  servants  had  been  already  murdered  while  out 
hunting,  and  he,  proceeding  to  ascertain  their  fate,  walked  into 
an  ambuscade  and  was  treacherously  slain  by  a  musket-shot. 
"  There  thou  liest,  great  bashaw  !  "  cried  one  of  the  murderers 


DISCOVERT  OF  THE   GREAT  WEST.  145 

in  cruel  exultation  over  his  corpse.  With  unuttera1)le  baseness, 
they  stripped  the  body  naked,  and  left  it  unburied  on  the 
prairie,  to  be  devoured  by  buzzards  and  wolves. 

The  animating  spirit  of  La  Salle  was  not  the  religious 
enthusiasm  of  the  Jesuit  missionaries,  nor  the  patriotic  devotion 
of  Champlain,  but  rather  a  vast  ambition,  a  passion  for  dis- 
covery, an  intense  energy  of  character,  which  courted  difSculty 
and  defied  danger.  The  story  of  his  life  is  one  almost 
unbroken  Iliad  of  disaster.  He  failed  in  that  magic  gift  of 
successful  leadership,  that  disarms  jealousy  and  inspires  enthu- 
siasm equal  to  its  own.  He  was  the  victim  of  unscrupulous 
rivals,  and  of  craven-hearted  traitors.  His  splendid  services  to 
France  and  civilization  merited  a  better  fate  than  his  tragic  and 
treacherous  death,  at  the  early  age  of  forty-thi-ee,  upon  the 
Texan  plains. 

The  assassins  soon  quarrelled  among  themselves,  and,  for  the 
most  part,  perished  by  mutual  slaughter,  or  were  murdered  by 
the  Indians.  The  Recollet  friar,  Jean  Cavelier,  a  Sulpitian 
priest,  and  elder  brother  of  La  Salle,  with  five  others,  made 
their  way,  with  incredible  hardship,  by  route  of  the  Mississippi 
and  Illinois,  the  great  lakes,  and  the  French  and  Ottawa  rivers, 
to  Canada,  and  proceeded  to  France,  where  the  tragic  story 
awoke  much  commiseration. 

The  brave  Tonti,  La  Salle's  faithful  lieutenant,  set  out  from 
Fort  St.  Louis,  on  the  Illinois,  to  succour  the  wretched  rem- 
nant of  the  Texan  colony.  The  mutiny  and  desertion  of  his 
followers,  floods,  fever,  and  semi-starvation  prevented  the 
accomplishment  of  his  generous  purpose  ;  and  he  subsequently 
died  in  obscurity,  more  fortunate  in  this  than  nis  unhappy 
chief. 

Two  years  later,  a  Spanish  force  from  Mexico,  sent  to  ex- 
terminate the  French  intruders,  discovered  the  ill-starred  Texan 
fort.  But  no  sentry  challenged  their  approach,  no  banner 
waved  above  the  frail  redoubt,  the  silence  of  death  reigned 
over  all.  They  entered,  and  beheld  a  scene  of  ravage  and  ruin. 
On  the  prairie  without  lay  three  dead  bodies,  one  that  of  a 
woman.     From  a  painted  and  wandering  savage,  once  a  French- 

19 


146  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

man,  and  follower  of  La  Salle,  now  lapsed  to  barbarism,  they 
learned  the  massacre  of  the  ^v^Tetched  remnant  of  the  colonists, 
wasted  by  small-pox,  sick  at  heart  of  hope  deferred,  and  per- 
chance welcoming  death,  as  a  release  from  their  sufferings. 
Thus  ended,  in  disappointment,  disaster,  and  death.  La  Salle's 
vast  and  towering  schemes  of  conquest  and  commerce  and  colo- 
nization. 


TILE  AGONY  OF  CANADA.  147 


CHAPTER  XI. 

"THE  AGONY  OF  CANADA." 

Civil  Disputes— "Frontenac's  Conflict  with  Perrot  and  Laval  —  Frontenac  re. 
called  —  La  Barre,  Viceroy,  1G82  —  Iroquois  War  Renewed —  Disaster  of 
Famine  Cove,  1684  —  Deuonville,  Viceroy — Seizes  Iroquois  Chiefs — Defeats 
Senecas  —  Plants  Western  Forts  —  Iroquois  Eavage  Frontier  —  Treachery  of 
Le  Rat  (Koudiaronk)  —  Massacre  of  LacMne,  the  "brain-blow"  of  Canada, 
1689. 

WE  must  now  return  to  trace  the  internal  history  of  Can- 
ada, from  which  we  have  been  diverted  by  the  consid- 
eration of  La  Salle's  eventful  career. 

During  the  ten  years  of  Frontenac's  first  colonial  administra- 
tion, his  haughty  and  overbearing  manners  involved  him  in 
perpetual  disputes  with  the  Bishop,  the  Intendant,  the  Council, 
the  Jesuits, —  in  fact,  with  all  who  opposed  his  often  arbitrary 
will.  M.  Perrot,  the  Governor  of  Montreal,  being  accused  of 
traffic  with  the  Indians,  contrary  to  the  ordinances  of  the  King, 
he  was  summoned  to  Quebec  by  Frontenac,  and  by  a  violent 
exercise  of  power,  imprisoned  in  the  Castle  of  St.  Louis. 
Perrot,  who  held  his  commission  from  the  King,  declined  to 
recognize  the  authority  of  Frontenac,  and  remained  in  durance 
for  a  whole  year.  The  Abbe  Fenelon,  parish  priest  of  Montreal, 
and  brother  of  the  celebrated  Archbishop  of  Cambray,  in  his 
Easter  sermon,  strongly  inveighed  against  the  arrest  of  Perrot, 
and  Avas  cited  before  the  choleric  Count  for  this  breach  of  priv- 
ilege, as  it  was  considered.  He  denied,  as  an  ecclesiastic,  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Council,  and  wore  his  hat  in  the  presence  of 
the  Governor.  He,  also,  was  imprisoned,  and  with  Perrot 
was,  shortly  after,  sent  under  arrest  to  France.  They  were 
both,  however,  reinstated  by  the  King,  to  the  intense  chagrin 
of  Frontenac. 

The  Governor  shared  all  the  despotic  instincts  of  his  sover- 
eign, and  sought  to  centre  hi  himself  all  authority.     The  In- 


148  HISTORY  OF  C AX  ADA. 

tendant,  Duchcsneau,  as  fond  of  power  as  Frontenac,  claimed 
the  presidency  of  the  Council,  and  did  his  utmost  to  thwart  the 
policy  of  the  Governor.  Through  these  rivalries,  the  council 
chamber  became  the  scene  of  unseemly  dissension  and  bicker- 
ings. 

The  fiery  Count  was  also  involved  in  bitter  controversy  with 
Laval  and  the  Jesuits.  Both  the  latter  strenuously  opposed 
the  liquor  traffic  as  demoralizing  to  both  Indians  and  white  men. 
The  Governor  considered  it  necessary  for  the  successful  prose- 
cution of  the  fur  trade,  and  asserted  that  its  evils  were  greatly 
exaggerated.  But  the  cause  of  justice  and  humanity  triumphed 
over  that  of  selfish  policy,  and  the  King  prohibited  the  sale  of 
liquor  to  the  Indians.  Frontenac,  however,  continued  to  main- 
tain his  positioa  chiefly  through  his  relationship  to  Madame  de 
Maintenon,  and  through  the  influence  of  his  wife,  a  reigning 
beauty,  at  the  court  of  Louis  XIV.  At  length,  wearied  with 
complaints,  the  Iving  re-called  both  Governor  and  Intendant,  in 
1682,  and  appointed  ]\I.  de  la  Barre  and  M.  de  Meules  as  their 
successors.* 

La  Barre  was  a  naval  officer  of  considerable  reputation, 
but  lacking  the  prompt  decision  and  energy  of  character  that 
the  exigencies  of  the  times  demanded.  On  his  arrival  in  Can- 
ada, he  found  the  country  threatened  with  the  outbreak  of  an- 
other Iroquois  war.  The  English  colonists  had  increased  to 
tenfold  the  number  of  the  French,  and  then-  fur  traders  were 
everywhere  endeavouring,  by  intrigue,  by  persuasion,  by  un- 
derselling their  rivals  in  the  luxuries  of  savage  life,  to  divert 
the  profitable  traffic  in  peltries  from  Montreal  and  Quebec  to 
Albany  and  New  York. 

Colonel  Dongan,  the  Governor  of  New  York,  notwithstand- 
ing the  friendly  relations  between  his  sovereign,  Charles  11., 
and  Louis  XIV.,  fomented  the  ancient  antipathy  of  the  Iro- 
quois to  the  French.  These  astute  forest  politicians,  courted 
and  flattered  by  the  English,  were  not  slow  to  perceive  the  ad- 
vantage to  be  derived  from  alliance  with  this  growing  power, 

*  In  tbis  year,  a  disastrous  fire,  the  first  of  several  such,  destroyed  a  large 
part  of  Quebec. 


THE  AGONY  OF  CANADA.  149 

which  they  seem  to  have  foreseen,  was  destined  to  be  the  victor 
in  the  conflict  with  the  French  for  the  mastery  of  the  less. 
continent.  It  was  their  policy,  however,  to  prolong  the  con- 
test. For  they  could  not  but  perceive  that  the  supremacy  of 
cither  would  be  followed  by  the  subjugation  of  themselves. 
This  was  the  explanation  of  the  seemingly  strange  vacillations 
of  the  Iroquois, —  now  fighting  in  the  interest  of  the  English, 
and  then,  in  the  very  horn:  when  victory  seemed  within  their 
grasp,  making  peace  with  the  French. 

La  Barre  assembled  a  council  of  the  principal  men  of  note 
in  Canada,  military  and  civilian,  clerical  and  lay,  to  take 
measures  for  the  defence  of  the  country.  The  Iroquois  had 
recently,  as  we  have  seeuy  invaded  the  territory  of  the  Illinois, 
then  allies  of  the  French,  and  massacred  or  captured  several 
hundreds  of  victims.  A  Seneca  war-party  had  also  waylaid 
and  plundered  a  company  of  French  traders.  An  appeal  was 
therefore  made  to  the  King  for  a  re-enforcement  of  three  hun- 
dred soldiers,  and  thirteen  hundred  labourers  to  cultivate  the 
fields,  that  the  Canadians,,  accustomed  to  bush-fighting,  might 
be  organized  for  active  service.  Only  two  hundred  troops 
could  be  spared,  and  of  agricultural  immigrants,  none.  Al- 
though thousands  of  intelligent  and  industrious  Huguenots 
were  being  driven  out  of  France  by  persecution,  to  enrich  with 
their  skilled  labour  the  rival  countries  of  England  and  Holland, 
they  were  not  allowed  to  pollute  Avith  their  heresy  the  soil  of 
Canada,  jealously  guarded  by  the  King  as  a  preserve  for  Cath- 
olic orthodoxy.  The  English  Governor  at  New  York,  though 
interdicted  by  his  sovereign  from  the  commission  of  any  overt 
hostility,  and  maintaining  courteous  correspondence  with  La 
Barre,  did  not  scruple  secretly  to  stimulate  the  outrages  of  the 
Iroquois. 

The  French  first  attempted  to  weaken  the  confederacy  of  the 
Five  Nations,  by  making  separate  treaties  with  the  Cayugas, 
Oneidas,  and  Onondagas,  who  amused  the  credulous  Governor 
with  promises  which  they  had  no  intention  of  keeping.  The 
attacks  of  the  Iroquois  on  the  French  forts  in  the  west,  now 
compelled  La  Barre  to  assume  the  ofiensive.     But  instead  of 


150  HISTORY  OF  CAXADA. 

striking  a  sudden  blow,  he  wasted  time  i'l  attempting  to  pro- 
cure the  co-operation  of  Dongan,  the  last  thing  he  was  likely 
to  get. 

At  length,  mustering  a  force  of  a  thousand  militia-men  and 

1684.  Indians,  with  a  few  regulars,  he  set  out  from  Montreal 
to  invade  the  Seneca  country,  by  way  of  the  Niagara  Tliver. 
Two  weeks  had  been  spent  in  negotiations  with  Dongan ;  as 
much  more  was  consumed  at  Fort  Frontenac.  The  provisions 
were  fast  being  consumed.  Through  the  incompetence  and 
delays  of  La  Barre,  his  command  endured  extreme  privations 
for  want  of  food.  Disease  and  death  wasted  them  away 
while  lingering  at  Famine  Cove,  near  Oswego, —  so  named  on 
account  of  their  sutierings.  Here  a  deputation  from  the  con- 
federate tribes  haughtily  dictated  terms  of  peace  with  the 
French,  on  the  promise  of  their  immediate  evacuation  of  the 
Iroquois  territory.  To  the  demand  of  La  Barre,  that  the 
peace  should  also  include  the  Illinois,  live  hundred  of  Avhom 
were  within  a  day's  march,  on  their  way  to  help  the  French,  the 
Iroquois  scornfully  replied,  "Not  "jvhile  a  warrior  of  either 
tribe  remains  alive  !  " 

Intensely  chagi'ined,  the  luckless  commander  accepted  the 
disgraceful  terms.  On  reaching  Quebec,  he  was  more  morti- 
fied to  find  that  a  re-enforcement  of  soldiers  had  arrived.  De- 
spatches also  awaited  him,  urging  the  utter  extirpation  or  severe 
chastisement  of  the  revolted  tribes;  and,  "as  the  Iroquois 
were  stout  and  strong,  and  would  be  useful  in  the  King"'s  gal- 
leys," that  the  Governor  should  make  prisoners  of  a  large  num- 
ber and  have  them  shipped  to  France  as  galley  slaves.  La 
Barre  was  not  in  a  position  to  comply  with  either  of  these 

1685.  requests,  and  was  shortly  after  recalled  in  disgrace.  He 
was  succeeded  by  the  Marquis  de  Denonville,  a  dashing  cavalry 
officer.  The  Chevalier  de  Callieres,  also  a  brave  soldier,  was, 
at  the  same  time,  appointed  Governor  of  Montreal. 

Denonville,  who  was  shortly  followed  by  six  hundred  regu- 
lars, after  a  few  hours'  rest  at  Quebec,  pushed  on  to  Fort  Fron- 
tenac. This  place  he  greatly  strengthened,  and  proposed  the 
establishment  of  a  fort  and  garrison  of  five  hundred  men  at 


TBE  AGONT  OF  CANADA.  151 

Niagara,  as  a  check  to  the  interference  of  the  British  in  the 
Northwest  fur  trade.  His  lucid  reports  on  the  state  of  the 
country,  sent  to  the  King,  are  valuable  historical  documents. 

Colonel  Dongan  meanwhile,  alarmed  at  this  vigorous  policy, 
assembled  the  principal  Iroquois  chiefs  at  Albany,  and  lese. 
urged  them  to  break  entirely  w^ith  the  French,  to  expel  their 
priests  and  receive  English  Jesuit  missionaries,  and,  above  all, 
to  extend  the  English  fur  trade  to  the  Northwest  tribes.  He, 
for  his  part,  pledged  his  assistance  if  they  should  be  attacked 
by  the  French.  Without  entirely  committing  themselves  to 
these  plans,  the  politic  chiefs  strengthened  their  alliance  with 
the  English. 

Denonville,  deeply  incensed,  determined  on  a  vigorous  war- 
policy  toward  the  Five  Nations,  notwithstanding  the  iost. 
promised  aid  of  their  English  allies.  He  was  guilty,  however, 
of  an  act  of  treachery,  which  left  a  stain  upon  his  name,  and 
greatly  embittered  the  Iroquois.  Through  the  influence  of  the 
Jesuit  missionaries,  he  induced  fifty  of  their  chiefs  to  meet  him 
for  a  conference  at  Fort  Frontenac.  To  gratify  the  whim  of 
the  King,  he  seized  their  persons,  and  shipped  them  in  irons  to 
France,  to  toil  in  the  royal  galleys.  Though  deeply  incensed, 
the  Iroquois,  with  a  magnanimity  shaming  the  perfidy  of  the 
Frenchman,  spared  the  lives  of  the  unwitting  instruments  of 
this  cruelty,  the  Jesuit  priests,  and  sent  them  unharmed  out  of 
the  country. 

In  June,  1687,  with  eight  hundred  regulars,  a  thousand 
militia,  and  three  hundred  Indian  allies,  in  two  hundred  bat- 
teaux,  Denonville  left  Montreal  to  attack  the  Senecas.  At  the 
mouth  of  the  Genesee  River  he  was  joined  by  four  hundred 
Illinois  Indians.  The  advance  guard  fell  into  an  ambuscade, 
but  with  the  aid  of  their  red  allies,  the  French  defeated  the 
Senecas  with  great  loss.  Denonville  spent  ten  days  in  ravaging 
the  country,  burning  the  villages,  and  destroying  an  immense 
stock  of  maize, —  over  a  million  bushels,  says  one  account, — 
and  a  prodigious  number  of  hogs.  Proceeding  to  the  Niagara, 
he  rebuilt  La  Salle's  fort  and  garrisoned  it  with  a  hundred  men. 
He  also  planted  palisaded  posts  at  Toronto,  Detroit,  Sault  Ste. 


152  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

Marie,  Michillimackinac,  and  on  the  Illinois  Eiver,  as  a  barrier 
against  the  encroachments  of  the  English  or  their  Iroquois  allies. 

The  whole  Five  Nations  now  united  to  avenge  the  slaughter 
1688.  of  the  Senecas.  They  attacked  and  razed  Fort  Niagara, 
whose  garrison,  reduced  by  famine  and  disease  to  ten  men, 
fled.  They  prowled  like  famished  wolves  all  along  the  frontier. 
They  lay  in  wait  near  every  settlement,  thirsting  for  Christian 
blood.  They  ravaged  the  country,  killed  the  cattle,  burned  the 
stacks  and  houses  with  flaming  arrows,  and  menaced  the  river 
seigneuries,  and  even  the  garrison  of  Fort  Frontenac.  During 
this  fatal  year,  over  a  thousand  of  the  colonists  fell  by  the 
scalping-knife  or  tomahawk  of  their  relentless  foe,  and  as  many 
more  by  the  dreadful  small-pox  which  devastated  the  country. 

In  this  extremity,  negotiations  for  peace  were  opened  under 
the  menace  of  a  thousand  Iroquois  warriors,  assembled  in  force 
at  Lake  St.  Francis.  These,  under  the  malign  influence  of  the 
English,  demanded  the  restoration  of  their  betrayed  chiefs,  now 
toiling  in  the  royal  galleys  in  France,  and  the  destruction  of  forts 
Frontenac  and  Niagara.  While  the  negotiations  were  pending, 
a  crafty  Huron  chief,  Kondiaronk,  or  "  The  Eat,"  a  forest 
Machiavelli,  ofiended  at  the  prospect  of  a  treaty  with  his  hered- 
itary foe,  by  a  deed  of  double  treachery,  efiectually  "killed 
the  peace,"  as  he  boasted,  and  revived,  with  intense  violence, 
the  horrors  of  savage  war.  Learning  that  an  Iroquois  embassy 
would  descend  the  Oswego  River,  he  placed  an  ambuscade  at  a 
portage,  which  they  would  have  to  pass,  and  killed  or  captured 
the  entire  party.  "When  his  prisoners  indignantly  remonstrated 
at  this  violation  of  the  truce,  the  crafty  Kondiaronk,  with  well- 
feigned  surprise,  declared  that  he  was  unaware  of  the  nature  of 
their  mission,  and  that  he  had  been  set  on  by  the  French  in 
making  the  attack.  He  expressed  extreme  regi-et  and  abhor- 
rence at  the  act  of  treachery  of  which,  he  avowed,  he  had  been 
made  the  unwilling  agent.  As  a  pledge  of  his  sincerity,  he  set 
his  prisoners  free,  with  the  exception  of  one,  whom  he  retained 
for  adoption,  in  place  of  a  Huron  who  had  been  killed. 

With  this  destined  victim  of  his  cruel  cunning,  he  hastened 
to  MichilUmackinac  and  delivered  his  prisoner  up  as  a  captive, 


THE  AGONY  OF   CAXADA.  153 

taken  in  war.  The  French  commandant,  nnaware  of  the  truce 
"which  had  been  proclaimed,  ordered,  after  the  savage  custom 
of  the  time,  tlie  execution  of  the  Iroquois.  In  vain  the  un- 
happy man  asserted  his  character  as  an  ambassador  of  peace, 
and  appealed  for  confirmation  to  Kondiaronk.  That  crafty  and 
cruel  wretch  shook  his  head,  and  declared  that  the  man's  mortal 
terror  must  have  turned  his  brain.  No  sooner  was  the  hapless 
victim  slain  than  Lc  Rat,  with  envenomed  tongue,  protested  to 
an  old  Iroquois  chief,  held  in  bondage,  his  indignation  at  the 
outrage  committed  in  the  murder  of  an  envoy  of  peace  ;  and 
loosing  his  bonds,  he  bade  him  to  fly  and  warn  his  tribesmen 
of  the  treachery  of  the  French.  Such  double-dyed  duplicity 
can  hardly  be  matched  in  all  the  annals  of  crime. 

The  cidminating  act  in  this  bloody  drama,  was  the  massacre 
of  Lachine,  in  1689.  On  the  night  of  August  5th,  twelve  hun- 
dred painted  warriors  landed,  amid  a  shower  of  hail,  on  the 
Island  of  Montreal.  Before  daybreak  they  lay  in  wait  around 
every  dwelUng  in  the  doomed  village.  At  a  given  signal,  the 
dreadful  war-whoop  awoke  the  sleepers  to  a  death-wrestle  with 
a  pitiless  foe.  Men,  women,  and  children  were  dragged  from 
their  beds  and  indiscriminately  butchered  with  atrocious  cruelty. 


OLD  STONE  TOWERS,  MONTREAL. 

The  houses  were  fired,  and  two  hundred  persons  perished  in 
the  flames.  As  many  more  were  carried  off  for  the  nameless 
hoiTors  of  deliberate  torture.  For  two  months  the  victors 
ravaged  the  island,  the  besieged  inhaljitants   of  Ville   Marie 

20 


154 


HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 


cowering  in  mortal  fear  behind  tlieir  palisades.*  On  the  first 
assault,  ]M  de  Robeyre,  a  gallant  officer,  threw  himself,  with  a 
small  body  of  soldiers,  into  Fort  Roland,  an  exposed  post.  ' 
He  continued  to  hold  it,  against  fearful  odds,  till  his  last  man 
was  slain,  and  he  himself  was  mortally  wounded, —  a  deed  of 
valour  rivalling  the  heroic  achievement  of  Dulac  dcs  Ormaux. 

This  "brain-blow"  seems  to  have  staggered  the  colony. 
Fort  Frontenac  was  blown  up  and  abandoned.  The  dominion 
of  France  in  the  New  World,  was  practically  reduced  to  the 
forts  of  Quebec,  Three  Rivers,  and  Montreal.  At  this  hour  of 
its  deepest  depression,  Denonville  was  recalled,  and  the  fiery 
Frontenac  was  re-appointed  Governor. 


*  Among  the  most  interesting  relics  of  tlie  early 
history  of  Montreal  are  the  two  old  etone  towera 
shown  on  the  preceding  page.  They  date  hack  to  the 
period  of  the  Indian  wars  above  described,  and  were 
erected  as  defences  against  the  attacks  of  the  savages. 
One  of  them  was  long  used  as  a  chapel,  and  contains  an 
altar  and  several  interesting  mortuary  inscriptions.  One 
of  these  commemorates  a  Huron  chief,  baptized  by 
Brdbeuf,  who  died,  aged  about  a  hundred  years,  in  1690. 
"  II  fut,"  says  his  epitaph,  "  par  sa  piet6  et  par  sa  probit<5 
I'example  des  Christiens  et  I'admiratiou  des  infidels." 
We  visited  the  tower  Ln  May,  1878. 

The  ancient  halbert  shown  in  the  engraving  is  another 
relic  of  the  old  regime.  It  was  found  while  excavating 
in  one  of  the  old  suburbs,  and  may  have  done  doughty 
service  against  the  Indian  assailants  of  the  mission  for- 
tress. 


FROXTENAC'S  SECOND  ADMINISTRATION.  1-55 


CHAPTER  Xn. 

FEONTENAC'S  SECOND  ADMINISTRATION. 

Frontenac  Re-appointed  Governor,  1689  —  Abenaquis  Ravages  —  French  Inva- 
sion of  New  England  —  Massacres  of  Corlaer,  Salmon  Falls,  and  Casco  Bay, 
1690  —  First  American  Congress  at  New  York  —  Sir  Wm.  PMps  Captures 
Port  Royal  —  Is  Repulsed  at  Quebec  —  Iroquois  Ravages  —  Bounty  on  Scalps 

—  Frontenac  Burns  Iroquois  Towns  — St.  Castine  —  Fall  of  Fort  Pemaqnid 

—  Col.  Church  Attacks  Villebon  on  the  St.  John  —  Is  Repulsed  —  D'Iberville 
in  Newfoundland  and  Hudson's  Bay  —  Treaty  of  Ryswick  Restores  Respective 
Possessions  of  France  and  England,  1697  —  Death  of  Frontenac,  in  his  Sev- 
enty-eighth Year,  1698. 

THE  veteran  soldier,  now  near  seventy  years  of  age,  was 
hailed  as  the  deliverer  of  Canada.  His  fiiults  were  for- 
gotten or  forgiven,  and  his  chivalric  valour  was  remembered  as 
the  bulwark  of  the  country.  He  arrived  at  a  critical  period. 
The  jieril  of  the  colony  was  increased  by  the  declaration  of  war 
between  France  and  England,  in  consequence  of  the  Revolution 
of  1688,  whereby  James  II.  was  driven  from  his  throne  by  his 
son-in-law,  William  III.,  Prince  of  Orange.  The  Governor 
had  brought  with  him  the  chiefs  so  treacherously  captured  by 
Denonville  ;  and  having  won  their  good-will  during  the  voj'agc, 
he  sent  them  to  their  tribes,  to  conciliate,  if  possible,  their 
favour. 

M.  de  CalMeres,  the  Governor  of  ISIontreal,  had  already 
urged  an  attack  upon  the  English  colonists,  whom  he  accused, 
and  not  without  reason,  of  inciting  the  Iroquois  to  war.  He 
proposed  making  an  attack,  with  a  strong  body  of  troops,  by 
way  of  the  Richelieu  and  Lake  Champlain,  on  Albany,  a  town 
of  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  houses,  which  was  defended  only 
by  an  earthen  fort  with  wooden  palisades,  and  garrisoned  l)y  a 
hundred  and  fifty  soldiers.  He  further  designed,  after  reducing 
Albany,  to  descend  the  Hudson  and  attack  New  York.  This 
was  then  an  open  town  of  some  two  hundred  houses,  defended 
by  about  four  hundred  men,  which,  it  was  thought,  would  sue- 


15G  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

cumb  to  a  sudden  assault.  The  British  possessions  in  Hud- 
son's Bay  were  also  to  be  simultaneously  attacked. 

This  plausible,  but  perilous  enterprise,  however,  was  set 
aside  in  favour  of  a  naval  attack  on  New  York.  Two  large 
war-ships,  with  several  smaller  vessels,  were  equipped  and 
i:)laced  under  the  command  of  INI.  do  la  Caffiniere,  who  was  to 
blockade  the  harbour  and  bombard  the  town.  But  naval  de- 
lays, boisterous  weather,  and  then  dense  fogs,  frustrated  the 
design,  and  caused  its  abandonment. 

The  Abenaquis  Indians,  on  the  Maine  frontier,  were  the 
allies  of  the  French,  and  among  them  were  several  Jesuit  mis- 
sions. In  retaliation  for  the  massacre  of  Lachine,  they  at- 
tacked the  New  England  fort  at  Pemaquid,  on  the  seacoast, 
between  the  Penobscot  and  the  Kennebec,  and  other  frontier 
posts.  All  the  horrors  of  Lachine  were  renewed.  •  Some  two 
hundred  jDersons  are  said  to  have  been  slaughtered.  The  blow 
struck  terror  to  the  heart  of  every  New  England  frontier  vil- 


OLD  FRONTIER  BLOCK  -  HOUSE. 


lage.  The  inhabitants  were  compelled  to  take  refuge  in  strong 
block-houses,  such  as  shown  in  the  engraving,  around  which 
deadly  fights  were  often  waged. 


FEONTEXAC'S  SECOXD  ADMINISTRATION.  157 

In  midwinter,  Frontcnac  organized  three  expeditions  to  rav- 
age, with  lire  and  SAvord,  the  British  colonies.  Early  in  Feb- 
ruary, two  hundred  men,  half  French  and  half  Indians,  leoo. 
under  the  command  of  Lieutenants  Mantel  and  Sainte  Hclcne, 
left  Montreal.  For  two-and-twenty  days,  they  traversed  the 
wintry,  snow-encumbered  woods,  crossing  morasses  and  swollen 
streams,  till  they  reached  the  vicinity  of  Albany.  Deterred 
from  attacking  that  place  in  their  exhausted  condition,  they 
turned  aside  to  the  neighbouring  village  of  Corlaer,  now  Schen- 
ectady, containing  some  eighty  wooden  houses.  At  midnight, 
in  a  bitter  storm,  the  brigands  entered  stealthily  the  little  ham- 
let, sleeping  in  fancied  security,  with  open  and  itnguarded 
gates.  Each  house  was  invested  by  grisly  figures,  bearing 
murder  in  their  hearts,  and  muffled  weapons  in  their  hands. 
Commands  were  given  in  whispered  tones,  and  the  human 
hyenas  awaited,  in  silence,  the  signal  for  slaughter.  The  wild 
war-whoop  was  raised,  the  terrible  tomahawk  gleamed  in  the 
lurid  flames  of  the  burning  buildings,  and  in  two  hours,  sixty 
men,  women,  and  children  were  wantonly  butchered,  their  blood 
crimsoning  the  snowy  ground.  Twenty-eight  were  taken  pris- 
oners, and  every  house  was  reduced  to  ashes.  It  was  not  war ; 
it  was  midnight  murder.  A  few  half-naked  wretches  escaped 
through  the  blinding  snow-storm,  to  Albany.  The  French 
rapidly  retreated,  pursued  by  the  English  from  Albany,  and  by 
a  band  of  IVIohawks,  who  cut  off  twenty-five  of  their  number,  and 
chased  the  way-worn  survivors  almost  to  the  gates  of  Montreal. 
The  second  expedition  was  led  l)y  Lieutenant  Hertel,  who, 
when  a  boy,  had  been  captured  and  tortured  by  the  Iroquois. 
He  now  bitterly  avenged  his  wrongs  on  their  English  allies. 
Setting  out  with  fifty  men  from  Three  Elvers,  after  two  months' 
weary  march  over  a  rugged  countr}%  he  fell  on  the  little  village 
of  Salmon  Falls,  in  New  Hampshire,  and  after  a  bloody  en- 
gagement, gave  it  to  the  flames,  burning  houses,  barns,  and 
cattle  in  their  stalls,  and  carried  off  fifty-four  prisoners.  The 
country  was  now  roused,  and  two  hundred  men,  thirsting  for 
revenge,  were  in  hot  pursuit.  Taking  his  post,  sword  in  hand, 
at  the  bridge  of  Wooster  Eivcr,  Hertel,  with  a  valour  worthy 


153  HISTORY  OF  CAXADA. 

of  a  better  cause,  held  the  pursuers  in  check,  and  covered  the 
retreat  of  his  comrades.  The  sufferings  of  the  captives  were 
intense.  They  were  compelled  to  carry  through  the  wilderness 
tlie  spoils  of  their  own  homes.  One  of  them,  rejecting  his 
Lurden,  was  left  by  the  Indians  to  perish  over  a  slow  fire. 
Mary  Ferguson,  a  ghd  of  fifteen  years,  bursting  into  tears 
through  grief  and  fatigue,  was  scalped  forthwith.  Suckling 
infants  were  thrown  into  the  river,  or  abandoned  in  the  forest, 
that  they  might  not  embarrass  the  retreat. 

But  although  there  might  be*  no  delay  for  mercy,  there  was 
for  slaughter.  AMiilc  returning,  Hertel  joined  a  third  party 
from  Quebec,  in  an  attack  on  the  British  fort  at  Casco  Bay. 
For  three  days  the  fort  held  out,  till  its  palisades  were  fired, 
when  a  crowd  of  prisoners  were  handed  over  to  the  tender 
mercies  of  l)lood-thirsty  savages.  The  works  were  razed  to  the 
ground,  and  every  house  burned  for  two  leagues  around.  Four 
vessels,  that  were  sent  from  Boston  to  relieve  the  fort,  came  in 
sight,  only  to  behold  the  flag  of  the  Bourbons  waving  upon  its 
ruins. 

In  retaliation  for  these  attacks  on  their  English  allies,  the 
Iroquois  ravaged  the  Canadian  frontier,  burst  from  the  forest 
on  solitary  outposts  and  lonely  hamlets,  shot  down  the  peasant 
in  his  field,  and  destroyed  the  growing  crops  ;  and  then  disap- 
peared as  suddenly  as  they  came. 

The  record  of  these  ruthless  deeds  is  a  dark  and  dreadful 
page  in  the  annals  of  our  country.  Cruel  wrongs  were  in- 
flicted on  either  side,  often  upon  the  helpless  and  the  innocent, 
and  a  heritage  of  hatred  was  handed  down  from  sire  to  son,  that 
embittered  for  generations  the  ruthless  conflicts  of  neighbour- 
ing Christian  peoples,  who  rivalled  in  deeds  of  pitiless  savagery 
their  pagan  allies. 

Eager  to  secure  the  allegiance  of  the  Indian  tribes  of  th 
NortliAvest,  and  to  retain  the  fur  trade,  Frontenac  dispatched  a 
strong  convoy  of  goods  to  Michillimackinac.  The  arrival  at 
Quebec  of  three  hundred  western  warriors,  in  one  hundred  and 
ten  canoes,  with  one  hundred  thousand  crowns'  worth  of  furs, 
demonstrated  the  success  of  the  movementr 


FROXTENAC'S  SECOND  ADMINISTRATION.  Iq'J 

111  the  month  of  May,  the  British  colonists,  who  were  now 
thoroughly  aroused,  sent  deputies  to  a  congress  at  Xcw  York, 
the  first  ever  held  in  America,  to  concert  a  scheme  for  com- 
bined action  against  the  French. 

In  the  struggle  for  very  existence  of  the  French  power  in 
America,  the  province  of  Acadia  had  been  almost  entirely 
neglected.  The  inhabitants  devoted  themselves  chiefly  to  the 
fur  trade  and  the  cultivation  of  the  rich  marsh-lands  on  the 
Bay  of  Fundy,  defended  from  the  sea  by  dykes.  The  trading- 
posts  were  not  mifrequently  attacked  and  pillaged  by  maraud- 
ing pirates.  The  country  was  destined  again  to  pass  into  the 
possession  of  the  English. 

Sir  AVilliam  Phips,  the  agent  of  this  transfer,  is  a  sufficiently 
noteworthy  character  to  detain  our  attention  for  a  little.  He  was 
born  of  humble  parents,  on  the  l)anks  of  the  Kennebec,  and  is  said 
to  have  been  one  of  twenty-six  children,  all  of  the  same  mother. 
Till  he  was  eighteen  years  old  he  was  employed  in  keeping 
sheep.  ,  He  then  came  to  Boston  and  learned  the  trade  of  ship- 
carpenter,  and  the  rudiments  of  reading  and  writing.  He  con- 
ceived, at  length,  the  project  of  recovering  the  treasure  of  a 
Spanish  galleon,  wrecked  fifty  years  before,  in  the  West  Indian 
seas.  Interesting  others  in  his  scheme,  he  procured  a  vessel 
for  the  purpose,  but  was  for  a  long  time  misuccessful.  At 
length  he  succeeded  in  obtaining  from  the  bottom  of  the  sea 
gold,  silver,  and  jewels  to  the  amount  of  £300,000  sterling, 
his  own  share  of  which  was  £16,000.  He  also -received,  what 
he  valued  perhaps  more,  the  honour  of  a  baronetcy. 

In  the  spring  of  ,1690,  Sir  "William  Phips  was  sent  by  the 
Colony  of  Massachusetts  to  reduce  the  Province  of  Acadia. 
With  a  force  of  seven  hundred  men,  in  eight  small  vessels,  ho 
appeared  before  Port  Royal,  w^iose  dilapidated  fort  was  gar- 
risoned by  only  eighty  men.  Menneval,  the  Governor,  stoutly 
demanded,  and  obtained,  honourable  terms  of  surrender. 
Phips,  however,  considering  himself  over-reached,  found  a 
pretext  for  breaking  his  word,  plundered  the  merchants,  pillaged 
the  church,  and  carried  the  garrison  prisoners  to  Boston.     The 


IQQ  HISTORY   OF  CAXADA. 

other  forts  were  speedily  reduced,  and  the  suhj ligation  of 
Acadia  completed. 

A  combined  attack,  both  naval  and  military,  on  Canada,  had 
been  devised  by  the  New  York  Colonial  Congi-ess.  Thirty- 
four  trading  and  fishing  vessels  were  collected,  and  provisioned 
for  four  months,  and  twenty-two  hundred  sailors  and  militia-men 
hired  or  jiressed  for  the  service.  Colonel  Winthrop  of  Con- 
necticut, with  eight  hundred  militia-men,  was  to  advance 
from  Albany  on  ]\Iontreal.  But  an  outbreak  of  small-pox  in 
Winthrop's  camp,  on  Lake  Champlain,  which  carried  oiT,  it  is 
said,  three  hundred  of  his  Indian  allies,  together  with  a  defi- 
ciency of  canoes  and  supplies,  compelled  his  retreat  to  Albany. 
Captain  Schuyler,  with  a  hundred  and  fifty  men,  whites  and 
Indians,  pressed  on  to  La  Prairie,  near  Montreal.  Falling  on 
the  settlement,  he  killed  or  captured  twenty-five  persons,  sev- 
eral of  whom  were  women,  and  then  beat  a  hasty  retreat. 

Frontenac  had  heard,  at  INIontreal,  of  the  menaced  invasion. 
Grasping,  himself,  the  tomahawk,  and  chanting  the  war-song, 
he  animated  his  twelve  hundred  Indian  allies  to  the  conflict. 
He  was  now  startled  at  learning  that  an  English  fleet  was  care- 
fully sounding  its  way  up  the  St.  Lawrence.  Hastening  to 
Quebec,  he  mustered  his  forces,  with  the  neighbouring  seigneurs 
and  their  censiiairesy  and  his  Indian  allies,  to  the  number  of 
three  thousand  men.  The  ramparts  had  been  greatly  strength- 
ened, and  stout  barricades  of  beams  and  casks  of  earth  were 
constructed  at  all  the  gates.  Early  in  the  morning  of  October 
5th,  the  snowy  sails  of  Phips'  fleet  were  seen  by  the  anxious 
eyes  upon  the  ramparts,  slowly  rounding  the  headland  of  Point 
Levi.  The  fleet  had  been  delayed  at  Boston,  awaiting  expected 
assistance  from  England,  which,  however,  never  came.  Hav- 
ing no  pilot,  Phips  lost  much  time  in  ascending  the  St.  Law- 
rence, and  was  detained  three  weeks  by  head- winds  at  Tadousac. 
Instead  of  finding  any  disposition  among  the  Inhabitants  to  ac- 
cept British  rule,  he  encountered,  wherever  he  attempted  to 
land,  the  most  spirited  opposition. 

The  day  after  he  reached  Quebec,  Phips  sent  an  officer  with 
a  peremptory  summon3  for  its  surrender,  iu  the  name  of  their 


FEOXTEXAC'S  SECOXD  ADMIXISTRATIOX.  Id 

majesties,  AVilliam  and  Mary,  King  and  Queen  of  England. 
The  messenger  was  blindfolded,  and  conducted  by  a  round- 
about way,  over  barricades,  amid  the  bubbuli  of  warlike  prep- 
aration, the  hustling  of  a  noisy  crowd,  and  the  laughter  of 
women,  who  called  him  Colin  Maillard, — the  name  of  the  chief 
plaj'er  in  blind-man's-buff, —  to  the  council  chamber  in  the 
Chateau  of  St.  Louis.  When  the  bandage  was  removed,  the 
envoy  beheld  a  brilliant  assembly  of  officers,  bedecked  with 
gold  and  silver  lace,  and  all  the  ''martial  foppery"  of  the 
period.  Presenting  his  summons,  he  laid  his  watch  upon  the 
table  and  demanded  an  answer  in  an  hour. 

"I  will  not  keep  you  waiting  so  long,"  said  the  haughty 
Frontenac.  ' '  Tell  your  general  that  I  acknowledge  no  King 
of  England  but  King  James.  The  Prince  of  Orange,  Avho 
crdls  himself  such,  is  a  usurper.  I  will  answer  your  general 
by  the  mouth  of  my  cannon,"  and  the  discomfited  envoy  was 
led  back  the  way  he  came. 

Phips  determined  to  land  his  troops  at  Beauport,  ford  the 
St.  Charles  at  low  water,  and  get  to  the  rear  of  the  town, 
while  his  fleet  bombarded  the  front.  But  that  night,  Callieres 
arrived  from  Montreal  with  strons;  re-enforcements,  who  sang; 
and  shouted  defiantly  as  they  filed  into  the  besieged  fortress. 
The  next  day  was  stormy,  but  the  day  after,  Major  Walley, 
with  thirteen  hundred  New  England  militia-men  landed,  through 
mud  and  water,  in  the  face  of  a  galling  fire,  at  Beauport.  The 
ground  was  boggy  and  miry,  which  made  the  work  of  dragging 
their  cannon  one  of  extreme  difficulty. 

Meanwhile,  Phips  opened  a  furious  fire  on  the  town,  which 
he  kept  up  for  two  days,  liut  his  guns  were  of  light  weight 
and  ill-served,  and  did  little  damage.  The  French,  on  the  con- 
trary, replied  with  such  effect,  that  the  larger  vessels  of  the 
fleet  were  badly  cut  up,  and  rendered  almost  unmanageable. 
"\Yalley's  men  suffered  intensely  from  rain  and  frost,  hunger  and 
exposure,  and  many  sickened  of  small-pox.  Struggling  in  the 
marshes  of  the  St.  Charles,  and  galled  by  the  fire  of  the  French 
and  Indian  sharp-shooters,  concealed  behind  coverts  and  breast- 
works, they  were  repulsed  with  loss.  They  hastily  embarked 
21 


162  niSTORT   OF  CANADA. 

at  night,  amid  a  violent  storm,  leaving  five  of  tlieir  cannon 
behind. 

Phips  now  felt  that  his  two  thousand  raw  fishermen  and 
farmers,  and  his  shattered  fleet,  were  unable  to  reduce  the 
almost  impregnable  fortress  of  Quebec, —  one  of  the  strongest 
natural  positions  in  the  world, —  garrisoned  by  three  thousand 
men,  and  commanded  by  a  skilled  and  veteran  soldier.  Drop- 
ping down  the  river,  l)ehind  the  Island  of  Orleans,  he  refitted 
his  damaged  vessels,  himself  working  with  the  sailors  at  his 
old  trade  of  ship-carpenter.  Late  in  November,  he  reached 
Boston,  crest-fallen  and  chagrined.  Several  vessels  of  his 
squadron  were  wrecked,  and  the  ill-starred  expedition  proved  a 
total  failure.* 

The  rejoicing  of  the  French  at  this  signal  deliverance  ^vas 
very  great.  It  was  commemorated  by  a  medal  bearing  the  in- 
scrij^tion  Francia  ix  Novo  Orbe  Yicteix,  Kebeca  Liberata, 
A.  D.  MDCXC,  and  1)y  the  erection  of  a  church  dedicated  to 
"  Xotre  Dame  de  la  Victoire,"  still  standing  in  the  lower  town. 

All  along  the  extended  Canadian  border  the  cruel  warfare 
raged.  The  entire  pojDulation  of  New  France  was  only  eleven 
thousand.  That  of  New  England  was  at  least  ten  times  as 
many.  The  Iroquois,  who  kept  both  nations  in  terror,  were 
less  than  seven  thousand,  about  two  thousand  of  whom  were 
fighting  men.  The  plucky  Frenchmen  continued  to  wage  the 
unequal  conflict.  With  their  Abenaquis  allies,  they  ravaged 
the  New  England  frontier,  and  French  corsairs  swept  the  sea- 
board, and  even  cut  out  vessels  in  Boston  harbour.  The  Eng- 
lish cut  the  clj^kes,  flooded  the  land,  and  slaughtered  the  cattle 
of  the  French  settlements  of  Acadia.  With  the  aid  of  their 
L'oquois  allies,  they  made  another  dash  at  Montreal,  and  the 
remorseless  savages  infested  the  French  settlements  along  the 
Eichelieu,  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  the  Ottawa. 

A  reign  of  terror  and  sorrow,  of  desolation  and  death  pre- 

*  Two  years  later,  Sir  William  Phips  Tvas  made  Governor  of  Massachusetts. 
His  sailor  habits,  however,  followed  him,  and  he  was  recalled  to  England  for 
assaulting,  with  his  cane,  the  Collector  of  Customs  of  the  port  of  Boston,  and 
a  Captain  of  the  Eoyal  Navy.    Death  ended  his  stormy  career  iu  1G93. 


FRONTEXAC'S  SECOXD  ADMIXISTRATIOX.  163 

vailed  iu  Canada.  "No  Frcnclimaii  shall  have  leave  to  cut  a 
stick,"  threatened  the  revengeful  Mohawks;  "they  shall  find 
no  quiet  even  in  their  graves,"  —  and  to  a  fearful  degree  thej 
made  good  their  threats.  Along  the  frontier  every  house  was 
a  fortress,  and  every  household  was  an  armed  garrison.  Many 
were  tlie  deeds  of  daring  done  l)y  lone  women  in  defence  of 
their  hearths  and  babes,  and  pitiful  were  the  sufferings  they 
endured. 

The  wife  of  Thomas  Drew,  captured  in  the  massacre  of  a 
New  Hampshire  village,  "in  midwinter,  in  the  open  air,  dur- 
ing a  storm  of  snow,"  gave  birth  to  her  first-born  son,  which 
was  doomed  to  instant  death  by  the  Abenaquis  savages.  Han- 
nah Dustin  of  Haverhill,  with  her  nurse  and  a  boy,  grimly 
avenged  the  murder  of  her  week-old  babe  hy  the  slaughter  of 
ten  out  of  twelve  of  her  slumbering  captors,  and  escaped  to 
the  British  settlements. 

The  footprints  of  civilization  were  marked  with  blood.  The 
deadly  ambush  lurked  on  every  side,  and  the  death-dealing 
bullet  from  the  unerring  marksman  lurking  in  the  thicket, 
menaced  the  starving  peasant  if  he  attempted  to  sow  or  reap 
his  scanty  acres.  The  culture  of  the  soil  was  impossible,  and 
famine  threatened  the  land.  In  both  New  England  and  New 
France,  a  lavish  paper  currency  was  issued,  and  crippled  trade 
languished  almost  to  extinction.  Society  was  returning  to  a 
state  of  savagery.  Christian  men,  despising  the  vast  heritage 
of  virgin  soil  with  which  the  great  All-Father  had  dowered 
His  chiklren,  red  or  white,  in  their  mutual  jealousy  and  hatred 
and  unhallowed  greed  for  gain,  hounded  their  savage  allies  at 
each  others'  throats,  and — crowning  atrocity  of  shame  !  —  a  tariff 
of  i^rizes  was  offered  for  human  scalps  ;  from  ten  to  twenty  louis 
by  the  French,  from  ten  to  fifty  louis  by  the  English.  Amid 
such  horrors  were  the  foundations  of  the  Canadian  nationality 
laid. 

The  British  government  resolved  on  striking  another  blow  at  the 
colonial  possessions  of  the  French.    A  secret  naval  expe-    1093. 
dition  was  fitted  out  in  the  British  dockyards  for  the  capture  of 
Martinique,  and  a  subsequent  attack  on  Quebec.     It  sailed' for 


164  ISTORY  OF  C AX  ADA. 

the  Antilles,  but  was  repulsed  at  Martinique,  with  the  loss  of 
nine  hundred  men.  Sailing  for  Boston,  yellow  fever  broke  out 
in  the  fleet,  causing  a  frightful  mortality, —  two-thirds,  say  the 
records,  of  the  five  thousand  on  board  died  of  that  disease. 
The  attack  on  Quebec,  which,  in  the  meantime,  had  been  greatly 
strengthened,*  was  therefore  abandoned.  During  this  year, 
French  privateers  captured  three  hundred  British  vessels,  and 
the  latter  only  sixty-nine  of  their  enemy's. 

To  put  an  end  to  this  reign  of  terror,  Frontenac  resolved  on 

1695.  a  supreme  eflbrt.  He  despatched  a  force  of  six  hundred 
men  to  Cataraqui,  where,  despite  the  protest  of  the  English 
Governor  of  New  York,  he  rebuilt  the  fort  abandoned  by  Den- 
onville,  in  order  to  curb  and  menace  the  Iroquois.  These  sav- 
ages retaliated  by  another  attack,  in  force,  on  Montreal,  but  the 
inliabitants,  being  forewarned  of  their  approach,  gave  them 
such  a  warm  reception,  that  they  retreated  to  their  forest  fast- 
nesses to  nourish  their  wrath  for  a  future  day  of  vengeance. 

The  following  year,  in  the  month  of  July,  the  veteran  Fron- 

1696.  tenac  organized  an  expedition  of  eight  hundred  white 
men,  and  as  many  Indians,  for  the  punishment  of  the  Iroquois. 
Overcoming  the  rapids  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  crossing  Lake 
Ontario,  in  a  fleet  of  batteaux  and  canoes,  they  sailed  up  the 
Oswego  River.  Arriving  at  night-fall  at  a  cataract,  hundreds 
of  torches  were  lighted,  casting  their  lurid  glare  on  the  flash- 
ing waters,  the  waving  foliage,  the  bronze  figures  of  the  In- 
dians, and  the  various  uniforms  of  the  French.  Plunging  into 
the  rapids,  the  savage  and  civilized  warriors  dragged  and 
forced  the  batteaux  beyond  the  obstruction,  to  the  placid  stream 
above.  Hanging  from  a  tree  they  found  two  bundles  of  reeds, 
indicating  that  fourteen  hundred  and  thirty-four  warriors, — 
such  was  the  number  of  the  reeds, —  bade  them  defiance. 
The  gallant  commander,  now  in  his  seventy-sixth  year,  his 
hair  white  with  age,  but  his  eyes  flashing  with  martial  fire, 
was  borne  on  a  litter  in  the  midst.  As  the  invaders  ap- 
proached  the  fortified  town  of  the   Onondagas,  the  savages, 

*  In  1854,  in  an  old  redoubt,  at  Quebec,  a  brass  plate  was  found  witli  a  Latin 
inscription,  commemorating  its  construction  by  Frontenac,  in  1693. 


FROXTEXAC'S  SECOND  ADMIXISTBATIOX.  165 

having  fired  the  combustible  wigwams,  fled  to  the  forest,  leav- 
ing the  smoking  brands  the  profitless  booty  of  the  conqueror. 
To  his  lasting  disgrace,  Frontenac  permitted  the  torture  of  a 
forest  stoic  of  nearly  a  hundred  years,  from  whom  no  suficrings 
could  extort  a  single  groan.  The  Oneidas  were  also  subdued, 
and,  their  stores  of  grain  being  destroyed,  were  abandoned  to 
the  wasting  of  famine  and  pestilence.  The  western  cantons, 
however,  continued  unsubjugated,  and  bitterly  avenged  their 
allies  l)y  the  murder  of  many  a  Frenchman. 

During  these  stormy  years,  M.  DTberville,  a  native  of  ]\Ion- 
treal,  who  had  risen  to  a  captaincy  in  the  French  navy,  was 
maintaining  the  supremacy  of  the  French  arms.  In  1685, 
with  j\ni.  Troyes  and  Ste.  Helene,  and  eighty  Canadians,  he 
had  traversed  on  snow-shoes,  six  hundred  miles  of  mountain, 
marsh,  and  forest  to  Hudson's  Bay,  and  with  many  brave  but 
bloody  exploits,  had  captured  the  British  trading-posts  on  that 
frozen  sea. 

Shortly  after  the  capture  of  Port  Eoyal  by  Phips,  the  garri- 
son established  there  hy  the  government  of  JNIassachusetts  was 
withdrawn,  and  xVcadia  passed  again  into  the  possession  of  the 
French.  INI.  Villebon,  the  newly  appointed  Governor  at  Port 
Royal,  being  greatly  exposed  to  the  attacks  of  Xew  England 
privateers,  removed  his  headquarters  to  the  River  St.  John, 
some  distance  above  its  mouth,  at  its  junction  with  the  Nashwaak. 
Here  he  had  a  strongly  palisaded  fort,  and  not  the  least  im- 
portant part  of  his  garrison  was  a  number  of  powerful  and 
well-trained  watch-dogs,  whose  deep  bay  gave  the  alarm  on  the 
approach  of  danger,  Indian  runners  kept  up  communication 
with  Quebec,  and  gave  intelligence  of  the  movement  of  Eng- 
lish ships  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy.  Phips  had  destroyed  the  fort 
at  the  mouth  of  the  St.  John,  but  French  privateers,  which 
swept  the  New  England  coast,  continued  to  bring  their  prizes 
into  the  river,  and  place  their  prisoners  and  spoils  in  Yillebon's 
fort. 

In  1G92,  Sir  William  Phips  had  built  at  Pemaquid,  at  the 
cost  of  a  hundred  thousand  dollars, —  an  immense  sum  for  those 
days, —  for  the  protection  of  Xew  England  against  the  French, 


16(3  mSTORY  OF  C AX  AD  A. 

a  strong  stone  fort.  It  was  of  quadrangular  shape,  with  four 
flanking  towers.  It  mounted  eighteen  cannon,  and  was  garri- 
soned by  sixty  men.  The  French  regarded  it  as  a  menace,  and 
determined  on  its  destruction.  Two  frigates  and  a  land  force 
were  to  co-operate  in  the  enterprise,  but  it  was  found  to  he 
defended  by  an  English  man-of-war,  and  to  be  too  strong  to  l)e 
successfully  attacked. 

It  remained  for  Villebon  and  D'Iberville  to  accomplish  the 
1697.  task  of  its  reduction.  They  left  the  St.  John  in  two 
frigates,  with  a  body  of  soldiers  and^  siege-material.  At  Pen- 
obscot Bay,  they  were  joined  by  the  Baron  St.  Castine,  with  a 
force  of  two  hundred  Indians.  The  story  of  St.  Castine  is  one 
of  romantic  interest.  He  was  born  at  Beam,  in  the  Pyrenees, 
the  heir  of  a  noble  house,  and  came  to  Canada  as  an  officer  of 
the  Carignan  regiment,  in  1G65.  He  had  settled  among  the 
Abenaquis,  and  married  the  daughter  of  jMadockawando,  the 
great  sagamore,  or  head  chief  of  these  tribes.  He  acquired  a 
remarkable  ascendancy  among  the  savages,  and  kept  a  sort  of 
semi-feudal  state  at  his  seigneury  of  Castine,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Penobscot.  He  gave  liberal  presents  to  his  Indian  followers, 
and  received  rich  furs  of  triple  their  value  in  return.  In  this 
way,  he  accumulated  a  fortune  of  three  hundred  thousand 
crowns.  He  had  several  daughters,  who  were  all  well  married 
to  Frenchmen,  and  received  handsome  do'UT.'ies. 

Captain  Chubb,  a  man  peculiarily  obnoxious  to  the  Indians, 
on  account  of  complicity  in  the  murder  of  two  of  their  chiefs, 
was  in  command  at  Fort  Pemaquid,  with  a  garrison  of  nearly  a 
hundred  men.  When  summoned  to  surrender,  he  returned  a 
spirited  defiance.  D'Ibervillc's  cannon  and  mortars  were  soon 
in  position,  and  the  explosion  of  the  shells  within  the  quad- 
rangle of  the  fort,  filled  the  hearts  of  the  little  garrison  with 
terror.  St.  Castine,  who  was  a  humane  man,  conveyed  a 
message  to  Chubb  that,  if  the  works  were  carried  by  assault, 
he  would  not  be  able  to  restrain  the  Indians  from  the  massacre 
of  the  English.  The  white  flag  was  soon  raised,  and  the  place 
surrendered,  but  the  guaranteed  protection  of  St.  Castine  was 
only  partially  enjoyed, —  several   lives   being   lost  by  acts  of 


FROXTEXAC S  SECOND  ADMINISTRATION.  107 

savage  violence.  The  walls  and  towers  of  the  fort  were  levelled 
to  the  ground,  and  the  French  sailed  away,  D'Iberville's  frigate 
narrowly  escaping  capture  by  an  English  fleet  sent  to  relieve 
the  fort. 

In  prompt  retaliation  for  the  loss  of  Fort  Pemaquid,  Colonel 
Church,  with  five  hundred  men  in  a  flotilla  of  whale-boats, 
ravaged  the  shores  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  as  far  as  Beau-ljassin, 
cutting  the  dykeS  and  burning  the  houses. 

Church,  on  his  return,  was  met  by  three  vessels  from  Boston, 
on  their  way  to  attack  Villebon,  at  his  fort  on  the  St.  John,  and 
was  ordered  to  join  the  expedition.  Carefully  sounding  their 
way  up  the  river,  they  approached  at  last  the  forest  fortress. 
The  watch-dogs  bayed,  the  alarm-gun  was  fired,  and  Villebon's 
Indian  scouts  kept  up  a  ceaseless  fusilade.  The  English  threw 
up  a  battery  of  three  cannon  landed  from  the  vessels,  and 
opened  fire  on  the  fort.  In  two  days  the  guns  were  dismounted, 
five-and-twenty  men  were  slain  by  the  fire  of  the  French,  and 
the  rest  of  the  assailants  were  suffering  severely  from  camping 
without  shelter  in  the  chill  October  air.  The  English  aban- 
doned the  attack,  and  retreated  crestfallen  to  Massachusetts. 

The  following  winter  was  one  of  intense  severity,  and  many 
Indians,  French,  and  English  iDerishcd  of  cold  and  hunger. 
The  atrocities  of  man  were  added  to  the  inclemencies  of  nature  ; 
and  in  many  a  lonely  hamlet,  the  shuddering  ear  of  night  was 
pierced  by  the  deadly  yell  of  the  savage  war-whoop.  Along 
the  frontier  no  man  could  leave  his  house  without  the  risk  of 
being  shot  and  scalped.  One  Indian  warrior  boasted  that  he 
had  killed  or  captured  one  hundred  and  fifty  men,  women,  and 
children. 

On  the  reduction  of  Fort  Pemaquid,  DTberville  sailed  to 
Quebec  for  re-enforcements,  and  thence  proceeded  to  pillage 
the  British  settlements  of  Newfoundland.  Brouillan,  the  Gov- 
ernor of  the  French  settlement  of  Placentia,  with  nine  priva- 
teers, chased  an  English  man-of-war  into  the  Bay  of  Bulls.  The 
British  captain  placed  all  his  cannon  on  his  exposed  broadside, 
and  fought  till  his  ship  was  wrapped  in  flamesi  The  French 
captured  thirty  English  vessels,  and  sacked  several  minor  posts. 


1(38  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

Being  joined  by  D'Iberville,  they  attacked  the  to-UTi  of  St.  John 
by  land  and  sea.  After  a  stout  resistance,  the  town  surren- 
dered, and  was  burned  to  ashes,  and  its  inhabitants  shipped  to 
EngLand,  or  to  Bonavista.  In  midwinter,  D'Iberville,  with  one 
hundred  and  twenty  Canadians  on  snow-shoes,  ravaged  the 
British  settlements,  killing  or  capturing  the  inhabitants,  and 
burning  their  houses. 

A  British  fur-trading  company  had  planted  several  strong- 
bastioncd  forts  in  Hudson's  Bay,  and  sent  thither  annual  ships 
to  collect  the  valuable  stores  of  furs.  In  successive  years, 
D'Iberville  attacked  and  captured  several  of  these  forts,  which 
were  afterwards  re-captured  by  the  British.  He  also  brought 
several  British  prizes  to  Quebec.  He  now,  in  1697,  under- 
took the  reduction  of  the  entire  region  surrounding  Hudson's 
Bay.  One  of  his  vessels  got  crushed  in  the  ice,  the  others  be- 
came separated,  and  he  reached  Fort  Nelson  with  a  single 
vessel  of  fifty  guns.  He  boldly  attacked  three  British  ships, 
mounting  one  hundred  and  twenty-four  guns,  and  sent  one  to 
the  bottom  with  all  sail  set,  with  the  loss  of  every  man  on 
board.  He  shortly  after  reduced  the  fort,  and  conquered  the 
whole  territory  for  France.  Thus  the  icebergs  and  rocky  shores 
of  this  wild  northern  sea  echoed  with  the  international  strife 
which  was  deluging  the  plains  of  Europe  with  blood,  and  carry- 
ing terror  to  every  hamlet  in  New  England  and  New  France. 

The  treaty  of  Ryswick,  signed  Sept.  20,  1697,  put  an  end  to 
the  war  in  the  Old  World  and  the  New,  and  restored  to  France 
and  England  the  respective  possessions  held  at  its  outbreak. 
The  bloodshed  and  pillage,  the  wretchedness  and  ruin  of  eight 
long  years,  counted  for  nothing;  and  the  irrepressible  conflict 
for  the  possession  of  a  continent,  had  to  be  fought  over  again 
and  again. 

Frontcnac  soon  after  died,  at  Quebec,  in  the  seventy-eighth 
1698.  year  of  his  age.  He  was  respected  or  admired  by  his 
friends,  for  his  energy  and  daring  of  character  ;  and  feared  or  hated 
by  his  enemies, —  and  he  had  many, —  for  his  stern  and  haughty 
manners,  and  cruel  temper  in  war.  His  lot  was  cast  in 
troublous  times,  and  he  had  at  least  the  merit  of  preserving  to 


FIWXTEXAC'S   SECOXD  ADMINISTRATION:  JGO 

France,  the  colony  -which  he  had  found  on  the  very  verge  of 
ruin. 

On  the  declaration  of  peace,  Dlberville,  the  hero  of  Hud- 
son's Bay,  obtained  a  commission  to  colonize  Louisiana.  Ex- 
ploring, planting,  building  from  1699  to  1702  in  the  hot,  un- 
wholesome bayous  and  lagoons  of  the  Gulf  coast,  he  founded 
Boloxi  and  IMobile.  Smitten  with  yellow  fever,  he  returned  to 
France.  Scarce  convalescent,  he  captured  from  the  British, 
Nevis,  one  of  their  West  India  possessions,  and  died  of  a 
second  attack  of  yellow  fever,  in  1706,  aged  forty-four.  Thus 
passed  away  one  of  the  restless  spirits  of  a  stormy  age,  whose 
deeds  of  valour  were  unhappily  also  deeds  of  blood. 


170  EISTORY   OF  CAXADA, 


CHAPTER  Xm. 

"QUEEN  AISTs^E'S  WAR." 

De  Calli^res  Succeeds  Frontenac  —  Treaty  -witli  tlie  Iroquois,  1700  —  Detroit 
Founded  —  AVar  of  tlie  Spanish.  Succession,  1702  —  Yaudreuil,  Ticeroy  — 
The  Abeuaquis  Ravage  New  England  —  Massacres  of  Deerlield  and  Haver- 
hill —  Tragic  Scenes  —  Port  Royal  Capttired,  Re-named  Annapolis,  1710  — 
Sir  Hovenden  Walker's  Disastrous  Attempt  against  Quebec,  1711  —  The 
Treaty  of  Utrecht  gives  England  Acadia,  Newfoundland,  and  Hudson's  Bay, 
1713  —  Internal  Development  —  Fur  Trade  —  Manufactures  —  Law  Reforms 
—  Charlevoix  Visits  Canada,  1720  —  Father  Rasles  at  Norridgewock  —  His 
Cruel  Murder  —  The  Abenaquis  Burn  Brunswick  —  Death  of  Vaudreuil  — 
Forts  Oswego  and  Frederic  Planted  —  Explorations  of  the  Y6rendryes,  in 
the  Northwest. 

THE  Chevalier  de  Callieres,  who  had  been  for  some  time  the 
commandant  of  Montreal,  was  appointed  successor  of 
1699.  Frontenac.  One  of  his  first  acts  was  the  conclusion  of 
a  peace  between  the  Iroquois  and  the  French.  Governor  Bella- 
mont  of  New  York,  in  arranging  the  exchange  of  prisoners 
after  the  war,  had  endeavoured  to  procure  the  recognition  of 
the  confederate  Five  Nations  as  the  subjects  of  Great  Britain ; 
but  the  senators  of  this  forest  republic,  strongly  asserted  their 
independence,  and  negotiated  a  separate  treaty  with  the  French. 
In  retaliation,  and  to  restrain  the  influence  of  the  Jesuits  among 
the  Iroquois,  the  legislature  of  New  York  passed  an  odious 
decree,  which  declared  that  every  "  Popish  priest,"  entering  the 
cantons  of  the  confederate  tribes,  should  be  hanged.  In  vindi- 
cation of  this  Draconic  law,  it  was  alleged,  and  not  without 
reason,  that  the  Jesuits  stirred  up  the  innate  ferocity  of  the 
savages  to  the  slaughter  of  the  English.* 

*  It  was  even  asserted  that  the  mysteries  of  the  Gospel  of  peace,  were  made 
the  means  of  inculcating  the  duty  of  massacre  and  revenge.  "  The  Indians  are 
taught,"  said  Bomaseen,  an  Abenaquis  sachem,  to  AVilliamsou,  the  English 
clergyman,  at  Boston,  "  that  the  Virgin  Mary  was  a  French  lady ;  that  her  son, 
Jesus  Christ,  was  murdered  by  the  English ;  that  he  was  risen  from  the  dead, 
and  gone  to  heaven ;  and  that  all  who  would  gain  his  favour  must  avenge 
his  blood."  » 


QUEEN  ANNE'S    WAR.  171 

The  Iroquois,  in  1700,  sent  envoys  to  Canada  "to  mourn 
over  tlie  French  killed  in  the  war,"  and  to  bury  the  hatchet  for- 
ever. This  treaty  was  ratified  the  following  year  before  the 
walls  of  Montreal,  with  feudal  pageantry,  amid  the  chanting  of 
the  Te  Deuniy  and  salvos  of  artillery,  in  an  assembly  of  thirteen 
hundred  plumed  and  painted  savages,  gathered  from  the  wide 
region  drained  by  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Mississii:)pi.  The 
forest  plenipotentiaries  exchanged  belts  of  wampum,  and 
smoked  the  pipe  of  peace  with  the  civic  and  military  dignitaries 
of  Kew  France,  and  signed  their  respective  totems, —  the 
beaver,  deer,  or  hare, —  to  the  treaty,  which,  for  several  years, 
they  faithfully  kept.  The  beauty  and  fashion  of  the  frontier 
court  lent  the  charm  of  their  presence  to  the  scene,  and  to  the 
subsequent  feast.  The  veteran  and  perfidious  Indian  states- 
man, Le  Eat,  after  an  eloquent  oration,  fell  fainting  to  the 
ground.  lie  died  the  next  day,  and  was  buried  with  much 
military  pomp  in  the  parish  church. 

To  maintain  their  grasp  of  the  great  West,  the  French  sent 
INI.  de  Cadillac,  with  a  hundred  men,  to  build  a  fort  at  Detroit, 
the  key  of  the  upper  lakes.  The  wise  choice  of  position  is 
vindicated  to-day  by  the  stately  "  City  of  the  Straits,"  which 
occupies  the  site  of  the  rude  fortress  of  1702.  Having,  for 
four  years  and  a  half,  administered  the  affairs  of  the  colony 
with  great  prudence,  De  Callieres  died  in  1703,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  the  Marquis  de  Vaudreuil,  commandant  of  Montreal. 
During  this  year,  that  malignant  scourge,  the  small-pox,  again 
ravaged  the  country,  and  carried  ofi",  it  is  aflirmed,  one-fourth 
of  the  population  of  Quebec. 

The  war  of  the  Spanish  Succession  had  now  broken  out  be- 
tween England  and  her  continental  allies,  and  France  and  Spain 
(May  15,  1702),  and  all  Europe  and  America  were  again  in- 
volved in  a  bloody  strife  for  the  maintenance  of  a  visionary 
balance  of  power.  By  the  victories  of  Eamilies,  Oudenarde, 
and  Malplaquet,  Marlborough  and  Eugene  won  name  and 
fame,  and  the  power  of  France  was  broken  at  the  cost  of  a 
sea  of  blood.  Again  the  "dogs  of  war"  slipped  their  leash 
amid  the  forests  of  the  New  World,  ap.d  on  its  virgin  soil  the 


172  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

atrocities  of  human  slaughter  were  repeated  with  aggravated 
horrors. 

The  English  had  endeavoured  to  secure  the  neutrality  of  their 
1703.  ferocious  neighbours,  the  Abenaquis.  A  congress  of 
chiefs  met  the  Governor  of  Massachusetts  at  Casco,  to  ratify  a 
treaty  of  peace.  "  The  sun,"  they  solemnly  declared,  "  is  not 
more  distant  from  the  earth  than  our  thoughts  from  war  "  •  and 
belts  of  wampum  were  given  as  the  pledge  of  fidelity.  Yet, 
within  six  weeks,  on  one  and  the  same  day,  they  burst  upon 
every  hamlet,  lonely  farmstead,  or  forest  fastness,  from  the 
Kennebec  to  the  Piscataqua,  sparing  neither  hoary  age,  nor 
childing  mother,  nor  tender  infancy.  Like  human  hyenas, 
they  lay  in  wait  for  their  prey,  thirsting  for  blood,  and,  after 
the  savage  spring,  skulked  off  into  the  forest  with  the  victims 
who  were  not  slain  upon  the  spot.  Blood-stained  and  smoul- 
dering embers  were  all  that  marked  the  site  of  many  a  happy 
horqe.  Death  hovered  upon  the  frontier.  Within  many  a 
village  palisade,  such  as  is  shown  in  the  engraving,  the  sentinel 
watched  the  live-long  night  away.  Every  house  was  a  fortress. 
No  mother  lulled  her  babe  to  rest  but  knew  that  before  morn- 
ing, the  roof-tree  above  her  head  might  be  in  flames,  or  her 
infant's  life  dashed  out  by  the  blow  of  a  tomahawk ;  and  often, 
in  shuddering  dreams,  the  terrible  war-whoop  rang  like  a  death- 
peal  in  her  tinglhig  ears.  No  man  might  go  abroad  in  safety. 
As  ho  held  the  plough,  or  reaped  the  scanty  harvest,  the  bullet 
of  a  lurking  foe,  perchance,  would  whistle  through  the  air,  and 
the  scalpless  bod}'  would  be  left  lying  on  the  ground.  Even 
little  children,  gathering  flowers,  and  mothers  going  to  the 
well,  or  cooking  the  midday  meal  by  their  own  hearth-stone, 
were  startled  by  the  apparition  of  a  dusky  form,  the  glare  of 
fiendish  eyes,  the  gleam  of  a  glittering  kinfe,  and  were  slain  on 
the  spot,  or  dragged  oflf  prisoners,  to  a  doom  still  worse  than 
death. 

And  Christian  men  surpassed,  in  these  deeds  of  slaughter, 
the  cruel  pagan  of  the  woods.  In  the  midwinter  of  1703- 
1704,  Hcrtcl  de  Rouville,  with  two  hundred  French  and  one 
hundred  and  fifty  Indians,  marched  two  hundred  miles  on  snow- 


QUEEX  ANXKS   WAIi. 


173 


shoes  to  the  little  town  of  Deerfield,  in  Massachusetts.  They 
laid  it  in  ashes,  and  of  its  inhabitants,  forty-seven  bedabbled 
with  their  blood  the  snow,  and  one  hundred  and  twelve  were 


dragged,  with  inhuman  torture,  through  the  wintry  woods,  to 
Canada.  Among  the  prisoners  was  Eunice  AVilliams,  the  wife 
of  the  village  pastor.  As  the  dreary  procession  halted  in  the 
snow,  she  nerved  her  soul  for  suffering  by  reading  the  holy 


174  niSTORY  OF  CANADA. 

words  of  her  Bible,  with  which  she  would  not  part.  AVeak 
from  recent  child-birth  pangs,  she  soon  faltered  by  the  way. 
"With  a  mother's  dying  prayer,  she  committed  her  five  captive 
children  to  the  care  of  their  Father  in  Heaven,  when  the  blow 
of  a  tomahavrk  ended  her  life.  *'  She  rests  in  peace,"  said  her 
stricken  husband,  "  and  in  joy  unspeakable,  and  full  of  glor}^'* ; 
more  happy  in  this  than  those  who  still  toiled  through  the 
wintry  wilderness.  Two  men  perished  of  cold  and  hunger. 
Did  an  infant's  feeble  wail  disturb  the  savage  warriors,  or  did  a 
mother  totter  beneath  her  load,  the  babe  was  tossed  into  the 
snow,  or  the  agonized  mother  was  brained  upon  the  spot.  The 
child  of  Pastor  Williams  was  adopted  by  the  Caughnawaga  In- 
dians, and  became  a  proselyte  to  the  Catholic  faith.  No  money 
could  procure  her  ransom.  She  married  an  Indian  chief,  and 
years  after,  clad  in  Indian  dress,  she  visited  her  kin  at  Deer- 
field  ;  Ijiit  not  the  fasting  nor  the  j)rayers  of  the  village  congre- 
gation could  win  her  back  to  the  faith  of  her  fathers.  She  re- 
turned to  her  wigwam  in  the  forest,  and  to  the  care  of  her 
dusky  babes. 

In  these  border  raids,  the  worst  passions  of  human  nature 
were  let  loose.  Aimless  butchery  ravaged  the  frontier,  unre- 
lieved, save  by  the  heroism  of  brave  men  dying  for  their  hearth- 
stones ;  and  of  even  weak  women  avenging  the  murder  of  their 
mangled  babes,  or  with  unwearying  mother-love  escaping  with 
their  orphaned  children  through  the  trackless  wilderness. 

Again,  in  1708,  De  Eouville,  not  yet  weary  of  slaughter, 
with  a  hundred  j)icked  Canadians,  and  a  troop  of  savages,  set 
out  from  JNIontreal  to  ravage  the  New  England  villages.  They 
ascended  the  St.  Francis  and  penetrated  the  passes  of  the 
"White  Mountains,  traversing  six  hundred  miles  of  tangled 
forest  or  rugged  rocks,  and  reached  the  little  town  of  Haver- 
hill, l)cside  the  placid  Mcrrimac.  At  day-break  they  fell  upon 
the  sleeping  hamlet.  The  tragedy  of  Deerfield  was  repeated. 
Before  the  dew  was  dry  upon  the  grass,  those  happy  homes  were 
a  heap  of  smouldering  ruins,  and  the  village  green  was  sodden 
with  the  blood  of  the  fiiithful  pastor  and  his  wife,  of  brave  men, 
and  fair  women,  and  manirled  babes.     The  loud  noise  of  the 


QUEEN  ANNE'S   WAR.  I75 

firing,  and  the  smoke  of  tlie  burning  houses,  aroused  the 
country  far  and  wide.  Snatching  from  their  support,  alcove 
the  fire-place,  the  gun  and  powder-horn,  the  sturdy  farmers 
hasted  to  avenge  or  rescue  their  killed  or  captured  neigh- 
bours. Though  but  a  handful,  they  hung  upon  the  rear  of  the 
flying  foe,  and  many  of  the  French  returned  from  their  hunting 
of  human  l^rey  no  more.  The  English  mourned  the  dead, 
sought  to  ransom  the  living,  and  to  avert  the  recurrence  of 
such  wanton  massacre.  "  I  hold  it  my  duty  towards  God  and 
man,"  remonstrated  honest  Peter  Schuyler  of  Albany,  to  the 
Marquis  de  Vaudreuil,  the  French  Governor,  "to  prevent,  if 
possible,  these  barbarous  and  heathen  cruelties.  My  heart 
swells  with  indignation,  when  I  behold  a  war  between 
Christian  princes,  degenerating  into  a  savage  and  boundless 
butchery." 

The  French  had  again  made  Port  Poyal  the  capital  of  Acadia. 
The  fort  was  re-built,  and  strengthened  with  earthwork  Ijas- 
tions,  faced  with  sods, —  a  very  eflTective  defence  against  cannon- 
balls.  Bruillan,  the  Governor  of  Placentia,  had  succeeded 
Villebon  in  command,  but  his  choleric  and  despotic  disposition 
provoked  the  jealousy  and  animosity  of  his  subordinates.  He 
commissioned  privateers  to  prey  upon  the  commerce  of  New 
England.  Indeed,  La  Hcve  became  little  better  than  a  nest  of 
pirates,  of  astonishing  audacity.  They  even  dashed  into  Boston 
harbour,  and  cut  out  vessels  Ij'ing  at  anchor.  With  the  goods 
thus  plundered,  they  instigated  the  savages  in  their  murderous 
raids  upon  the  English  settlements. 

In  retaliation.  Colonel  Church  resumed  his  old  work  of  de- 
struction. With  fifteen  transports  and  thirty  whale-  1704. 
boats,  filled  with  armed  men,  he  ravaged  the  shores  of  the  Bay 
of  Fundy,  breaking  the  dykes,  killing  the  cattle,  burning  the 
houses,  and  plundering  the  inhabitants.  Three  years  later,  a 
licet  of  five-and-twenty  vessels,  conveying  a  force  of  nearly 
two  thousand  New  Englanders,  appeared  l^efore  Port  Eoyal. 
The  garrison,  re-enforced  by  St.  Castine  with  sixty  Indians, 
strengthened  the  works  under  the  fire  of  the  enemy,  and  offered 
such  a  spirited  resistance  that,  after  an  unsuccessful  assault,  on 


176  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

the  sixth  day,  the  attacldng  force  sailed  away  completely 
baffled.  A  second  attack,  the  same  year,  fared  no  better.  The 
following  year,  the  British  were  almost  entirely  driven  out 
of  Newfoundland, —  their  sole  remaining  possession  being  Car- 
bonear. 

The  New  England  colonists  now  determined  on  the  conquest 

1709.  of  Canada,  and  appealed  for  help  to  the  mother  country. 
A  fleet  and  army,  it  was  arranged,  were  to  be  sent  from  Eng- 
land for  the  reduction  of  Quebec,  while  a  colonial  force  was  to 
co-operate  by  land.  Colonel  Nicholson,  with  a  force  of  two 
thousand  men,  advanced,  by  way  of  Albany,  to  Lake  Cham- 
plain.  The  Iroquois  had  promised  to  make  war  against  the 
French,  but  failed  to  keep  their  engagement,  unwilling  that  the 
English  should  gain  a  dangerous  preponderance.  A  serious 
epidemic  broke  out  in  Nicholson's  camp,  caused,  it  was  thought, 
by  the  treacherous  Iroquois  poisoning  the  stream  that  supplied 
the  army,  by  throwing  into  it  raw  hides.  He  learned,  also, 
that  the  English  fleet  and  army,  instead  of  co-operating  with 
the  movement,  had  been  despatched  to  Lisbon  to  aid  the  Portu- 
guese against  Spain.  He  therefore  burned  his  block-houses, 
and,  with  sadly  diminished  numbers,  made  a  hasty  retreat  to 
Albany. 

The  following  year,  the  long-delayed  succours  arrived,  and 

1710.  Queen  Anne  defrayed,  from  her  private  purse,  the  cost 
of  equipping  four  New  England  regiments.  Too  late  to  act 
against  Canada,  a  fleet  of  fifty  vessels,  with  three  thousand  five 
hundred  colonial  militia,  under  command  of  General  Nicholson, 
sailed  from  Boston  for  the  cajoture  of  Port  Eoyal.  After  a 
vigorous  resistance,  M.  Subercase,  its  commandant,  obtained 
favourable  terms  of  capitulation,  and,  with  his  famished  gar- 
rison of  one  hundred  and  fifty-six  men,  marched  out  with  the 
honours  of  war ;  and  ever  since  the  red-cross  flag  has  waved 
over  the  noble  harbour,  then  named,  in  honour  of  the  reigning 
sovereign,  Annapolis.  The  inhabitants  were  conveyed  to  Eo- 
chelle.  Colonel  Vetch,  with  four  hundred  and  fifty  men, 
occupied  the  fort.  Vaudreuil,  the  Governor  of  Canada,  com- 
missioned the  younger  St.  Castine,  son  of  the  old  Baron,  to 


QUEEN  ANNE'S   WAR.  177 

hold  Acadia  for  the  French,  and  if  possible,  to  drive  out  the 
English.  He  carried  on  a  harassing,  petty  war,  cutting  off 
detached  parties,  and  even  attacking  the  fort. 

General  Nicholson  again  proceeded  to  England,  to  urge  the 
conquest  of  Canada.  The  legislature  of  New  York  deputed 
Colonel  Schuyler  of  Albany,  to  present  the  same  request.  He 
was  accompanied  by  five  Iroquois  chiefs,  who,  dressed  in  a 
court  costume,  were  presented  in  state  to  Queen  Anne.  Giving 
her  belts  of  wampum,  as  pledges  of  their  fidelity,  they  engaged 
that  their  tribesmen  would  grasp  the  hatchet  and  fight,  on  behalf 
of  the  English,  j[or  the  conquest  of  Canada. 

The  plan  of  the  campaign  was  devised  by  the  brilliant  Boling- 
broke,  who  expressed  "  a  paternal  concern  for  its  success"; 
but  in  the  choice  of  leaders,  he  was  hampered  by  court  favour- 
itism and  back-stairs  influence.  The  command  of  the  military 
forces  was  given  to  General  Sir  John  Hill,  brother  of  Mrs. 
J^Iasham,  the  confidante  of  the  Queen.  The  naval  command 
was  assigned  to  Sir  Hovenden  Walker, —  an  utterly  incompe- 
tent ofiicer. 

On  the  30th  of  July,  the  fleet,  numbering  over  eighty  ships 
of  war  and  transports,  with  five  of  Marlborough's  1711. 
veteran  regiments,  and  two  regiments  of  colonial  militia,  sailed 
from  Boston  for  the  attack  on  Quebec.  Four  thousand  militia 
and  six  hundred  Iroquois,  under  General  Nicholson,  advanced 
simultaneously  from  Albany  to  Lake  George.  The  colonies 
created  a  large  issue  of  paper  money  to  meet  the  expenses  of 
the  expedition.  Behind  the  walls  of  Quebec,  which  mounted  a 
hundred  guns,  five  thousand  French,  chiefly  militia,  awaited  the 
attack ;  and  at  Chambly,  three  thousand  men,  under  De  Lon- 
gueuil,  guarded  Montreal.  Walker  sailed  slowly  up  the  St. 
Lawrence,  intending  to  winter  in  the  river,  and  wondering 
how  he  would  protect  his  ships  when  it  shoidd  be  frozen  to  the 
bottom  ;  he  thought  he  would  place  them  in  cradles  on  the  shore  ! 
On  the  23d  of  August,  the  fleet  was  enveloped  in  a  fog,  and 
amid  the  darkness  drifted  upon  the  reefs  of  the  Egg  Islands. 
Before  morning,  eight  of  his  vessels  were  shattered,  and  eight 
hundred  drowned  sailors  and  soldiers  were  strewn  upon  the 


178  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

shores,  together  with  broken  bales  and  boxes,  ana  fragments  of 
the  wrecks. 

Yet  Sir  Hovenden  found  compensations  even  in  this  disaster. 
"  Had  we  arrived  safe  at  Quebec,"  he  wrote,  "  ten  or  twelve 
thousand  men  must  have  been  left  to  perish  of  cold  and  hunger. 
By  the  loss  of  part.  Providence  has  saved  all  the  rest."  He 
tranquilly  abandoned  the  enterprise,  subsequently  so  heroically 
achieved  by  Wolfe,  against  greater  difficulties,  and  sailed  for 
Great  Britain.  General  Nicholson  was  compelled,  by  this  dis- 
aster, to  retreat  from  Lake  George,  and  the  beleaguered  fortress 
had  another  respite  from  conquest. 

The  following  year,  the  infant  settlement  of  Detroit,  garri- 
1712.  soned  by  only  a  score  of  men,  was  attacked  by  six 
hundred  of  the  Fox  tribe  of  Indians,  instigated  by  the  English. 
The  Indian  allies  of  the  French,  however,  rallied  for  its  de- 
fence, and  the  besiegers,  taking  refuge  in  an  entrenched  camp 
which  they  had  constructed,  were  themselves  besieged  in  turn. 
Dej^rived  of  water  and  of  food,  they  were  reduced  to  the 
utmost  extremity,  and  were  almost  exterminated  by  their  ruth- 
less foe. 

On  the  13th  of  March,  1713,  in  the  Dutch  town  of  Utrecht, 
the  treaty  was  signed  which  gave  peace,  not  only  to  the  war- 
worn nations  of  Europe,  but  also  to  the  scattered  colonists  in 
the  wilds  of  the  New  World.  England  obtained  Acadia  and 
Newfoundland,  the  two  seaward  bulwarks  of  the  French,  to- 
gether with  the  unexplored  regions  around  Hudson's  Bay,  and 
the  protectorate  of  the  Iroquois  nation.  France,  of  all  her 
vast  colonial  possessions,  retained  only  Canada,  Cape  Breton, 
the  small  islands  of  St.  Pierre  and  Lliquelon,  and  certain  fish- 
ing rights  on  the  shores  of  Newfoundland,  together  with  the 
undefined  territory  of  Louisiana. 

The  i^eace  between  Great  Britain  and  France  continued  for 
over  thirty  years,  and  gave  an  opportunity  for  the  development 
of  the  natural  resources  of  the  colonies.  Vaudreuil  began 
forthwith,  in  anticipation  of  the  final  struggle,  to  strengthen 
the  defences  of  New  France,  and  to  extend  the  chain  of  forest 
forts,  connecting  it  with  the  Mississii3pi  valley.     A  town  was 


QUEEN  ANNE'S    WAR. 


179 


begun  at  Louisburg,  Cape  Breton,  now  called  Royal  Islantl, 
which  became  the  home  of  many  French  refugees,  from  the 
ceded  provinces  of  Acadia  and  Newfoundland  ;  and  a  fortress  of 
immense  strength  was  constructed  as  the  seaward  bulwark  of 
the  St.  Lawrence,  at  the  cost,  when  complete,  of  five  millions 
of  dollars.  A  system  of  defensive  works  was  constructed  at 
Quel^ec,  and  INIontrcal  was  surrounded  by  a  stone  wall.     Ee- 


OLD  CITT  WALL,   MONTREAL. 

mains  of  both  of  these  are  still  visible.  Fort  Frontenac  was 
strengthened,  and,  notwithstanding  the  remonstrance  of  Gov- 
ernor Burnet  of  New  York,  a  new  stone  fort  was  erected  at 
Niagara,  controlling  the  navigation  of  Lake  Erie. 

But  the  growth  of  peaceful  industry  was  a  surer  means  of 
promoting  national  prosperity.  The  fur  trade,  the  chief  in- 
dustry of  the  country,  was  relieved  of  some  of  its  hampering 
restrictions,  and  an  annual  fair  was  established  at  Montreal. 
The  English,  however,  drew  off  much  of  the  trade  to  Albany 
and  New  York,  offering  for  peltries  three  times  the  price  given 
by  the  !French.  English  goods,  in  consequence,  were  largely 
smuggled  into  the  country.  Ship-building  was  encouraged, 
and  Quebec  laid  the  foundation  of  her  distinguished  reputation 
for  this  industry.  Iron  was  manufactured  at  St.  Maurice,  and 
salt  at  Kamouraska.  The  interdiction  was  removed  from  the 
manufacture  of  woollen  and  linen  cloth.  Besides  furs, —  timber, 
staves,  tar,  tobacco,  flour,  pease,  and  pork  were  exported  in 
increasing  quantities  to  France  and  the  West  Indies.      The 


180  ,  BISTORT  OF  CAyADA. 

cliief  imports  were  manufactured  goods,  sugar,  rum,  and  mo- 
lasses. A  considerable  trade,  in  one  year  amounting  to  half  a 
million  of  francs,  sprang  up  with  China,  in  ginseng  root,  to 
which  the  Chinese  attributed  marvellous  medicinal  virtues. 
Tea  was  also  introduced  from  that  country.  After  the  infusion 
was  drunk,  the  leaves  were  eaten,  in  order  that  nothing  might 
be  lost. 

Judicial  reforms  were  also  introduced,  tending  to  repress  the 
litigious  disposition  of  tlie  people.  A  letter-post  was  estab- 
lished, the  country  was  divided  into  eighty-two  parishes,  and 
roads  were  made  between  the  settlements  to  supplement  the 
water  communication.  The  absence  of  a  local  legislature,  and 
the  lack  of  secular  education,  left  the  general  population  in  a 
torpid  intellectual  condition.  At  the  same  time,  the  lack  of 
capital  prevented  the  growth  of  manufactures ;  and  the  seign- 
eurial  tenure  of  the  land,  and  its  minute  subdivision,  through 
inheritance,  by  diminishing  the  stimulus  to  effort,  tended  to 
perpetuate  poverty,  and  prevented  the  growth  of  that  intelli- 
gent industrial  population,  which  became  the  strength  of  New 
England.  The  fascinations  of  the  adventurous  fur  trade  were 
also  especially  unfavorable  to  agricultural  prosperity.  This 
trade,  successive  edicts ,  in  vain  attempted  to  repress,  for  with 
it  every  family  in  the  colony  was  in  some  way  connected.  The 
English  colonists,  on  the  contrary,  devoted  themselves  almost 
exclusively  to  agriculture,  conquering  yearly  a  broad  domain  of 
forest,  and  extending  the  frontiers  of  civilization  ;  the  fur  trade 
was  only  a  very  subordinate  industry.  The  coureur  de  hois 
had  no  English  comiterpart,  although  he  maj^  have  had  a  few 
English  imitators. 

In  1720-1722,  Pere  Charlevoix,  the  learned  and  accom- 
plished Jesuit  missionary,  traversed  Canada  and  Louisiana,  and 
wrote  a  voluminous  and  valuable  history  of  the  country. 
Quebec  had  then  a  population  of  seven  thousand.  Its  society, 
which  was  largely  military,  he  describes  as  very  agreeable, 
and  much  more  brilliant  than  that  of  Boston.  "  The  English," 
he  said,  "knew  better  how  to  accumulate  wealth,  but  the 
French   had   the  more  elegant  manner  of   spending  it."     But 


QUEEN  ANNE'S    WAR. 


181 


l)oncalh  this  gay  exterior,  tlie  reflex  of  the  salons  of  Fon- 
taiiicbleaii,  was  concealed  a  general  poverty.  Montreal  had 
about  two  thousand  inhabitants,  and  the  entire  Province  about 


PtRE  CHARLEVOIX. 

twenty-five  thousand.  Proceeding  westward,  he  found  the 
whole  country  a  wilderness,  whose  solitude  was  relieved  only 
by  a  few  fortified  stations, —  Cataraqui,  Niagara,  and  Detroit, — 
and  a  few  missions  or  trading-posts,  on  the  upper  lakes  and  in 
the  country  of  the  Illinois, —  a  region  now  populous  with  life, 
and  l^usy  with  active  industries. 

Tv^ith  their  increase  of  population,  the  New  England  Colonies 
extended  their  settlements  along  the  Atlantic  sea-coast,  toward 
the  St.  Croix,  and  into  the  adjacent  interior.  The  Abenaquis 
had  long  claimed  this  region  as  an  ancestral  possession,  under 
the  2)rotectorate  of  the  French.  For  more  than  a  quarter  of  a 
century.  Father  Rasles,  a  Jesuit  priest,  had  maintained  a  mis- 
sion at  Norridgewock,  on  the  banks  of  the  Kennebec.  He  had 
a  well-cultured  mind,  and  wrote  Latin  with  classical  purity. 


182  niSTORT  OF  CANADA. 

A  rigorous  ascetic,  he  used  little  food  but  pounded  maize  ;  his 
only  drink  was  water.  With  his  own  hands,  he  built  his  cabin, 
and  erected  a  forest  sanctuary  of  more  than  wonted  magniii- 
cence,  hewed  his  wood  and  tilled  his  garden.  In  order  to  at- 
tract the  attention  of  his  savage  catechumens  by  an  appeal  to 
their  senses,  he  exhausted  his  artistic  skill,  which  was  not 
small,  in  painting  sacred  pictures  on  the  walls  of  his  chapel, 
and  carving  an  image  of  the  Virgin.  He  trained,  also,  a  choir 
of  forty  Indian  neophytes,  arrayed  in  cassock  and  surplice,  to 
chant  the  hymns  and  assist  in  the  daily  religious  service. 

To  counteract  the  religions  influence  of  Easles,  the  English 
of  Massachusetts  sent  a  Puritan  minister  among  the  Abenaquis  ; 
but  the  system  of  Calvin  presented  less  attraction  to  the  savage 
mind  than  that  of  Loyola.  The  English,  by  stratagem,  seized 
several  Abenaquis  chiefs  and  held  them  as  hostages,  even  after 
the  payment  of  a  stipulated  ransom.  The  tribesmen  of  the 
captives  demanded  their  release,  and  the  evacuation  of  the 
Abenaquis  territory,  under  threat  of  active  reprisals.  A 
border  war,  with  all  its  inhuman  atrocities,  now  broke  out. 
The  English  seized  the  young  Baron  St.  Castine,  who,  by 
descent,  on  his  mother's  side,  was  an  Indian  war-chief,  and 
held  also  a  commission  as  a  French  officer.  They  raised  a 
formidable  force  of  a  thousand  fighting  men,  and  urged  the 
Abenaquis  to  surrender  Father  Easles,  who  was  especially 
obnoxious  as  the  directing  spirit  of  the  tribe.  The  Indians 
were  hunted  like  wolves  ;  and  the  mercenary  revenge  of  private 
individuals,  was  stimulated  by  the  bounty  of  a  hundred  pounds 
ojffered  for  each  scalp.* 

The  Abenaquis,  in  retaliation,  burned  the  town  of  Bruns- 
wick, and  overshadowed,  with  a  cloud  of  terror,  the  entire 
frontier.  Father  Easles  clearly  foresaw  the  inevitable  result. 
Ho  was  urged  to  take  refuge  in  Canada,  but,  although  a  price 
of  a  thousand  pounds  was  placed  upon  his  head,  the  brave 

*  In  February,  1725,  Jolin  LoveweU,  with,  forty  men,  surprised,  a  camp  of 
sleeping  Indians.  At  one  volley  every  one  was  slain.  For  their  ten  scalps, 
the  victors  received,  in  Boston,  the  substantial  reward  of  £1,000  sterling. 
—  Di-alcc's  Book  of  tlie  Indians,  iii.,  121. 


QUEEN  ANNE'S    WAR.  183 

soul  replied,  "I  count  not  my  life  dear  unto  myself,  so  that 
I  may  finish  with  joy  the  ministry  which  I  have  received."  An 
armed  expedition  penetrated  the  Penobscot  as  far  as  the  site  of 
Bangor.  Here  was  a  stockaded  fort,  seventy  yards  by  fifty, 
with  a  large  chapel,  and  a  score  of  well-built  houses.  The  in- 
habitants had  fled,  and  the  whole  was  given  to  the  flames. 

In  August,  1724,  a  force  of  two  hundred  English  ascended 
the  Kennebec,  and,  unperceived,  reached  the  Norridgewock 
mission.  A  deadly  volley,  poured  into  the  unarmed  village, 
was  the  first  announcement  of  the  presence  of  the  foe.  Fifty 
warriors  seized  their  arms,  not  to  fight,  but  to  protect  the  flight 
of  their  wives  and  children.  Eighty  were  slain  or  drowned 
while  seeking,  beneath  a  shower  of  bullets,  to  swim  the  rapid 
stream.  The  chapel  and  houses  were  first  pillaged  and  then 
burned,  and  the  invaders  returned  from  their  work  of  blood. 
The  surviving  Indians,  groping  amid  the  ashes  of  their  homes, 
found  the  scalped  and  mangled  body  of  their  beloved  missionary, 
his  skull  and  the  bones  of  his  legs  broken,  his  mouth  and  eyes 
filled  with  mud.  With  tears  and  kisses,  and  bitter  lamenta- 
tions, they  washed  his  body  and  buried  it  beneath  the  altar,  at 
which  he  had  so  often  ministered.  His  countrymen  regarded 
him  as  a  blessed  martyr ;  the  English  considered  him  the  incen- 
diary of  a  savage  war.  More  than  two  hundred  years  after  his 
death,  in  1833,  a  monument  was  erected  to  the  memory  of  the 
murdered  missionary,  on  the  scene  of  his  apostolic  toil.  It  is 
a  plain  granite  obelisk,  surmounted  by  an  iron  cross,  as  shown 
in  the  accompanying  engraving. 

For  three  long  years  of  horror  and  bloodshed,  the  hideous 
border  war  went  on,  when,  by  a  treaty  signed  at  Boston,  the 
Indians  east  of  the  Kennebec  owned  the  sovereignty  of  Great 
Britain. 

In  1725,  after  a  skilful  and  prudent  administration,  for 
nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century,  of  colonial  aflfairs,  Vaudreuil 
died,  beloved  and  regretted  by  those  over  whom  he  ruled. 

The  same  year,  another  serious  disaster  happened  to  Canada. 
Tlie  ship  "Le  Chameau,"  of  the  royal  navy,  conveying  M. 
Chazel,  the  newly  appointed  Intendant,  together  with  the  Gov- 


184  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

ernor  of  Three  Hi  vers,  and  a  company  of  military  officers  and 
ecclesiastics,  was  "wrecked  on  the  coast  of  Cape  Breton,  and 
not  one  of  the  passengers  or  crew  escaped  alive.     For  days 


RASLES'  MONUMENT  AT  NORRIDGEWOCK. 

afterwards,  broken  bales  of  merchandise,  and  drowned  bodies, 
were  strewn  along  the  inhospitable  shore. 

Yaudreuil  was  succeeded,  as  Governor  of  Canada,  by  the 
Marquis  de  Bcauharnois,  a  natural  son  of  Louis  XIV.  Gov- 
ernor Burnet  of  New  York,  a  son  of  the  distinguished  Bishop 
of  Sarum,  jealous  of  the  existence  of  Fort  Niagara,  established 
a  fort,  in  defiance  of  the  remonstrance  of  Bcauharnois,  at 
Oswego,  in  order  to  divert  the  Indian  trade,  by  way  of  the 
Mohawk  and  Hudson,  to  New  York.  The  French,  in  retalia- 
tion, greatly  strengthened  Fort  Niagara,  and  shortly  after  built 
Fort  Frederic,  at  Crown  Point,  on  Lake  Champlain,  near  the 
1731.  British  frontier, —  a  position  of  great  strategic  impor- 
tance, commanding  the  "gate-way"  of  Canada,  and  destined 
to  be  the  scene  of  many  a  bloody  conflict. 

An  Indian  outbreak  in  Blinois  was  suppressed  liy  an  expedi- 
tion from  Montreal,  by  way  of  the  Ottawa  and  Nipissing, —  an 


QUEEN  ANNE'S   WAR.  185 

exiiibition  of  vigour  wliich  increased  tiie  authority  of  France 
among  the  western  tribes. 

A  long  period  of  peace  now  ensued.  The  population  of 
Canada  slowly  increased,  and  its  internal  development  made 
considerable  progress.  The  cultivation  of  the  soil  was,  how- 
ever, greatly  neglected  for  the  seductive  fiu'  trade,*  which  pos- 
sessed for  the  adventurous  voyageur  and  coureur  de  bois  a 
strange  fiiscination.  Assuming  the  garb,  these  often  assumed, 
also,  the  social  habits  of  the  red  men, —  living  in  their  wigwams, 
marrying  their  daughters,  and  rearing  a  dusky  brood  of  half- 
breeds,  in  whom  the  savage  predominated  over  the  civilized 
nature. 

The  daring  spirit  of  exploration  was  not  yet  extinct.  As 
early  as  1717,  a  trading-post  and  fort  had  been  planted  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Kamanistiquia,  in  Thunder  Bay,  Lake  Superior, 
where  Fort  William  was  afterwards  built.  In  1731,  ]\I.  Ycren- 
drye,  having  formed  a  partnership  with  a  company  of  JMontreal 
merchants,  for  the  purpose  of  trade  in  the  great  Northwest,  set 
out,  with  Pcre  Messagcr,  a  missionary  priest,  and  a  party  of 
attendants,  to  take  possession  of  those  vast  regions  for  the  King 
of  France,  and  with  the  object  of  ultimately  reaching  the  Pacific 
Ocean  overland.  They  proceeded  by  way  of  the  Kamanistiquia 
and  Eainy  Lake  and  Kiver,  and  Lake  of  the  Woods, —  these 
latter  names  are  but  translations  of  those  given  by  the  original 
French  explorer, —  to  Lake  Winnipeg.  They  then  ascended 
the  Saskatchewan  as  far  as  the  forks  of  that  river.  At  the 
junction  of  the  Assinil)oine  and  Ecd  rivers,  where  Fort  Gariy 
was  afterwards  erected,  and  at  other  important  points,  forti- 
fied posts  were  planted.  In  one  of  their  expeditions,  on  an 
island  in  the  Lake  of  the  Woods,  in  1736,  a  son  of  ]\I.  Veren- 
drye,  with  the  Jesuit,  Pere  Anncau,  and  twenty  others  were 
slain  by  a  band  of  Sioux.  In  1742,  the  explorers  reached  the 
upper  waters  of  the  Missouri  and  Yellowstone  rivers,  and  on 

*  The  profits  of  tlio  fur  trade  were  enormoiis.     It  is  stated,  that  in  1754,  at  a 
vrestern  post,  beaver-skius  "were  bonglit  at  fonr  grains  of  popper  eac!i;  and 
eiglit  hundred  francs  were  realized  from  selling  a  poun'&  of  vermilion,  which 
was  in.  great  request  for  -war-paint. 
24 


186  BISTORT  OF  C AX  ADA. 

Jan.  1,  1743,  the  brothers  Yerendrye,  sons  of  the  veteran 
pioneer,  reached  the  foot  of  the  Eocky  Mountains.  That  giant 
barrier  prevented  their  further  progress,  and  not  till  sixty  years 
after,  1805,  did  those  daring  travellers,  Lewis  and  Clarke,  pen- 
etrate its  passes,  and,  dcscendhig  the  Columbia  Elver,  reach 
the  Pacilic  Ocean. 


LOVISBURG  —  DU  QUESNE.  187 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


LOUISBUEG  — DU  QUESNE. 

War  of  the  Anstrian  Succession,  1744  —  Pepperell's  Conquest  of  Louisburg,  1745 
—  The  Disastrous  Attempt  of  the  French  at  its  Recapture,  1746  —  Death  of 
D'Auville  aud  D'Estouruelle  —  The  Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  restores  Louis- 
burg to  France,  1748  —  Franco  claims  the  Ohio  Valley  —  Halifax  Founded, 
1749  — The  Acadian  "  Neutrals "— The  Abb6  de  Loutre  — Blood  Shed  at 
Beau  S(Sjour  —  Jonqui^re's  Avarice  and  Bigot's  Fraud  —  Fort  Du  Quesne 
Phmted  —  Collision  in  the  Ohio  Valley,  1754  —  The  Death  of  JumouTille 
"  kindles  the  World  into  a  Flame." 

THDE  question  of  the  Austrian  succession  now  involved  both 
Europe  and  America  in  the  throes  of  war.  The  emperor 
Charles  VI.,  by  ample  cessions  of  territory  to  several  princes, 
procured  a  general  acknowledgment  of  the  ' '  Pragmatic  Sanc- 
tion," whereby  his  daughter,  Maria  Theresa,  was  guaranteed 
the  succession  to  the  crown.  Upon  the  death  of  the  emperor, 
in  1740,  Spain,  Prussia,  and  Bavaria  laid  claim  to  a  portion  of 
the  inheritance.  Charles  Albert,  of  Bavaria,  was  elected 
emperor,  and  the  heroic  and  beautiful  Maria  Theresa  placed 
herself  and  her  infant  son  under  the  protection  of  her  Hun- 
garian nobles,  whose  enthusiasm  soon  procured  a  re-action  in 
her  behalf.  England,  Sardinia,  Austria,  Holland,  and  Saxony 
declared  in  her  behalf.  France  espoused  the  cause  of  Charles 
Albert,  and  proclaimed  war  against  England.  The  1744. 
Stuart  Pretender  deemed  the  moment  opportune  for  raising  a 
Scottish  revolt. 

The  conflict  soon  extended  to  America.  Louisburg  became 
a  rendezvous  for  French  privateers,  which  preyed  upon  the 
commerce  of  New  England.  Du  Quesne,  the  Governor  of 
Cape  Breton,  organized  a  strong  force  for  the  capture  of  the 
British  settlements  at  Canso  and  Annapolis.  The  former  was 
burned,  and  its  garrison  and  settlers  made  prisoners  of  war. 
The  latter  oiFered  a  stout  resistance,  notwithstanding  the  dilapi- 
dated condition  of  its  fortifications  and  the  reduced  state  of  its 


188 


HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 


garrison,  and  completely  baffled  every  effort  of  the  French  to 
reduce  it,  l)y  stratagem  or  by  assault. 

Governor  Shirley,  of  Massachusetts,  now  resolved  to  attempt 
the  daring  feat  of  the  capture  of  Louisburg,  which  was  a  stand- 
ing menace  to  Ncav  England.  He  appealed  for  help  to  Great 
Britain,  and  to  the  neighbouring  colonies.  In  a  few  weeks, 
four  thousand  colonial  militia  were  collected,  and  William  Pep- 
perell,  a  merchant  and  militia  colonel  of  Maine,  who  had  1)cen 

an  active  spirit  in  organizing 
the  exjDedition,  and  who  was 
afterwards  knighted  for  its 
success,  was  appointed  to  its 
command.  The  celebrated 
George  Whitefield,  the  elo- 
quent Methodist  preacher, 
who  was  then  in  New  Eng- 
land, was  asked  to  furnish  a 
motto  for  the  regimental  flag, 
and  gave  the  inscription,  "  Kil 
desperandum,  Christo  duce." 
Indeed,  in  the  eyes  of  the 
more  zealous  Puritans,  the 
SIR  WILLIAM  PEPPERELL.  expedition     possessed     quite 

the  character  of  a  crusade  against  the  image-worship  of  the 
Catholic  faith. 

On  the  29th  of  April,  1745,  a  hundred  vessels,  large  and 
small,  among  them  ten  large  ships  of  the  royal  navy,  carrying 
five  hundred  guns,  under  Commodore  Warren,  having  been 
detained  many  days  by  the  thick-ribbed  ice  off  Canso,  sailed 
into  the  capacious  harbour  of  Louisburg.  This  was  one  of  the 
strongest  fortresses  in  the  world.  It  was  surrounded  by  a  wall 
forty  feet  thick  at  the  base,  and  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet  high, 
and  by  a  ditch  eighty  feet  wide.  It  mounted  nearly  two  hun- 
dred guns,  and  had  a  garrison  of  two  thousand  men.  The 
assailants  had  only  eighteen  cannon  and  three  mortars.  With 
a  rush  and  a  cheer,  they  charged  through  the  surf,  and  repulsed 
the  French,  who  lined  the  steep  and  rugged  shore.     A  detach- 


L  O  UISB  URG  —  DUQ  UESXE. 


189 


ment  of  troops  fired  a  num1)cr  of  warehouses  filled  with  naval 
stores  —  pitch,  tar,  and  tiirpeiitmc.  The  dense  smoke,  driven 
})y  the  wind,  so  stifled  and  terrified  the  garrison  of  a  detached 
battery,  that  they  spiked  their  guns,  and 
fled  into  the  main  fortress.  The  battery 
was  promptly  seized,  the  touch-holes  of  the 
cannon  drilled  out,  and  a  damag- 
ing lire  opened  on  the  town. 
During  fourteen  nights, — the 
only  time  they  dared  attempt 
the  task, —  the  English  sail- 
ors dragged  their 
siege  guns  and  am- 
munition on  sledges 
through  a  marsh,  and 
thus  gained  the  land- 
ward and  weakci' 
side  of  the  fort. 


CAPTURE  OF  LOUISBURG,   1745. 


Trenches  and  parallels  were  opened  and  pushed  within  two 
hundred  yards  of  the  walls.  Great  breaches  were  made,  which 
were  as  promptly  repaired  by  the  garrison.  It  was  intended 
that  the  fleet  should  bombard  the  town,  w^hile  the  land  force 
should  attempt  to  enter  it  by  assault.  In  the  meantime,  a 
French  man-of-war,  "  La  Vigilante,"  of  seventy-four  guns,  with 
five  hundred  and  sixty  men,  was  captured  by  the  English  fleet 
in  sight  of  the  beleagured  town.  Her  rich  freight  of  military 
stores  was  a  great  gain  to  the  besiegers,  and  a  great  loss  to  the 
besieged,  as  they  were  much  needed  by  both.  This  disaster, 
together  with  the  erection  of  new  batteries  by  the  British,  and 
the  preparations  for  a  general  assault,  so  disheartened  Ducham- 
bon,  the  French  commander,  that  on  the  IGth  of  June,  after  a 
gallant  resistance  for  six  weeks,  he  yielded  to  a  simnnons  to 
surrender,  and  the  New  England  militia  marched  into  the 
works.  As  they  beheld  their  extent,  they  exclaimed,  "  God 
alone  has  delivered  this  stronghold  into  our  hand,"  and  a 
seiinon  of  thanksgiving  was  preached  in  the  French  chapel. 

The  garrison  of  two  thousand  veteran  troops  and  militia,  and 


190  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

the  inhabitants  of  the  town,  as  many  more,  were  conveyed  to 
France.  Two  French  East  Indiamen,  and  a  South  American 
spice-ship,  were  decoyed  into  the  harbour  and  captured,  and 
their  cargoes,  worth  one  million  pounds,  confiscated.  The 
weather,  which,  during  the  siege,  had  been  fair,  now  became 
very  stormy,  and,  but  for  the  surrender,  would  have  inevitalily 
produced  a  great  mortality  among  the  civilian  soldiers,  who 
were  very  imperfectly  sheltered,  and  were  quite  unaccustomed 
to  military  service.  The  fall  of  the  strongest  fortress  iu  the 
New  World  —  the  Dunkirk  of  America  —  before  a  little  army 
of  New  England  farmers  and  fishermen,  caused  the  wildest 
delight  at  Boston,  and  the  deepest  chagrin  at  Versailles.  Beau- 
harnois  was  recalled,  and  the  Marquis  do  la  Jonquiere  was 
appointed  Governor-General  of  Canada. 

Shirley  and  Pepperell  now  determined  on  attempting  a  still 
greater  enterprise, — no  less  than  the  conquest  of  Canada — and 
sought  the  assistance  of  the  mother  country  in  the  undertak- 
ing. But  an  imminent  danger  threatened  New  England  itself. 
1746.  A  great  fleet  of  fifteen  ships  of  the  line,  twenty-four 
frigates,  and  thirty  transports  and  fire-ships,  with  a  military 
force  of  three  thousand  men,  was  assembled  in  the  harbour  of 
Kochelle,  for  the  purpose  of  recapturing  Louisburg  and  Anna- 
polis, ravaging  the  New  England  coast,  and  destroying  the  town 
of  Boston.  "When  the  news  of  this  formidable  fleet  reached 
New  England,  solemn  services  were  held  in  the  churches,  to 
pray  for  deliverance  from  the  danger. 

The  French  fleet  was  followed  by  disaster  from  the  very  out- 
set. It  was  scattered  by  storms,  two  ships  were  captured  by 
the  English,  some  were  wrecked,  others  driven  back  to  France, 
audit  was  three  months  before  the  Due  D'Anville,  the  admiral 
of  the  fleet,  with  onl}''  two  ships,  reached  the  place  of  rendez- 
vous, Chebucto  (now  Halifax)  harbour,  to  find  only  a  solitary 
vessel  awaiting  him.  His  disappointment  was  intense,  and,  in 
a  few  days,  he  died  suddenly,  apparently  from  apoplexy,  al- 
though it  was  whispered  that  he  had  taken  poison.  On  the  day 
of  D'Anville's  death,  arrived  Vice- Admiral  D'Estournelle,  with 
three  ships.     He  urged  the  abandonment  of  the  enterx^rise,  as 


LOUISBURG  —  DU  QUESNE.  191 

most  of  the  soldiers  were  on  board  the  missing  ships.  This, 
Governor  Jonquiere,  who  was  on  his  way  to  Canada,  opposed, 
and  a  council  of  war  decided  on  attacking  Annapolis.  D'Es- 
tournelle  fell  into  a  fever,  attended  with  delirium,  the  result,  it 
was  thought,  of  mental  excitement,  and,  falling  upon  his  sword, 
he  was  found  in  his  cabin,  weltering  in  his  blood. 

Other  vessels  of  the  fleet  continued  daily  to  arrive,  but  the 
long  confinement  on  shipboard  produced  an  epidemic  of  scui-vy 
and  dysentery  among  the  soldiers  and  sailors,  attended  with 
frightful  mortality.  They  were,  therefore,  put  on  shore  to 
recruit,  but,  in  a  month,  eleven  hundred  were  buried.  The 
infection  spread  also  to  the  Indian  allies  of  the  French,  the 
Micmacs,  of  Nova  Scotia,  one-third  of  which  tribe  are  said  to 
have  perished. 

In  the  middle  of  October,  the  camp  was  broken  up,  and  the 
fleet,  now  consisting  of  less  than  forty  vessels,  sailed  for  Anna- 
polis, to  attempt  the  capture  of  that  fort.  It  encountered, 
however,  such  a  severe  tempest  off  Caj)e  Sable,  that  Jonquiere, 
now  chief  in  command,  ordered  a  return  to  France.  This  frus- 
tration of  the  threatened  invasion  by  the  power  of  the  elements 
rather  than  by  that  of  man,  was  the  occasion  in  New  England 
of  devout  thanksgiving  for  what  was  considered  a  signal  inter- 
position of  Providence. 

Undeterred  by  disaster,  the  French,  the  next  year,  fitted  out 
two  squadrons,  one  against  the  British  East  Indies,  the  other  to 
recover  Louisburg.  Admirals  Anson  and  Warren,  however, 
intercepted  and  defeated  both  off  Cape  Finisterre,  capturing 
many  vessels,  five  thousand  men,  and  a  great  quantity  of  booty. 
Among  the  prisoners  was  Jonqui6re,  thus  again  prevented  from 
assuming  the  government  of  Canada.  The  Count  de  la  Galis- 
soniere  was  appointed  acting  Governor  till  Jonqui6re  could  be 
exchanged.  In  the  autumn  of  the  same  year,  a  convoy  of  ten 
French  men-of-war  was  encountered  off  Belle  Isle  by  Sir 
Edward  Hawke,  with  fourteen  sail  of  the  line  and  five  smaller 
vessels.  Six  of  the  largest  of  the  French  ships  were  captured, 
but  the  merchant  fleet  escaped. 

For  two  years  longer,  a  cruel  border  warfare  continued  to 


192  BISTORT  OF  CANADA. 

rage.  The  French  and  their  Indian  allies,  in  no  less  than 
twenty-seven  snccessive  raids,  ravaged  the  New  England  fron- 
tier, and  cajitured  several  fortified  posts.  From  Boston  to 
Albany,  a  wide  region  was  abandoned  by  its  inhabitants,  flying 
from  the  tomahawk  and  torch  of  the  midnight  assassin  and 
incendiary. 

At  length,  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  put  an  end  to  Hostil- 
1T48.  ities,  and  restored  to  each  nation  the  possessions  held 
before  the  war.  To  the  intense  chagiin  of  the  New  England 
colonists,  the  fortress  of  Louisburg,  conquered  by  their  valour, 
was  restored  to  France,  in  exchange  for  her  East  Indian  con- 
quest of  Madras.  Great  Britain  reimbursed  the  expenses  of 
the  colonies,  but  the  control  of  Louisburg  by  the  French, 
made  it  again  a  standing  menace  to  their  commerce  and  their  ■ 
prosperity. 

The  peace  was  only  accepted  hy  both  nations  as  a  breathing- 
spell  to  prejiare  for  the  coming  struggle  for  the  possession  of 
the  continent.  The  gi-eat  want  of  Canada  was  population. 
This  essential  element  of  prosperity  numbered  only  al^out  sixty 
thousand,  while  that  of  the  English  colonies  was  twenty-fold 
greater,  and  their  realized  wealth  was  still  more  disproportion- 
ate. The  French  laid  claim,  on  the  plea  of  first  discovery,  to 
the  vast  interior  of  the  continent,  and  sought  to  restrict  the 
British  to  the  Atlantic  seaboard;  and  Galissonicre,  the  acting 
Governor  of  Canada,  a  man  of  intrepid  spirit  though  of  de- 
formed person,  urged  the  immigration  of  ten  thousand  French 
peasants  to  occupy  the  valley  of  the  Ohio,  and  thus  prevent  the 
threatened  intrusion  of  British  settlements.  The  home-loving 
instincts  of  the  Gallic  race,  however,  were  averse  to  coloniza- 
tion. The  active  Governor,  therefore,  took  measures  to  form- 
ally assert  the  sovereignty  of  France  over  those  vast  regions. 
He  despatched  an  officer  with  three  hundred  soldiers,  to  de- 
l^osit  in  the  earth,  at  the  foot  of  certain  marked  trees,  at  inter- 
vals along  a  line  reaching  from  Detroit  to  the  Alleghanies, 
leaden  plates,  on  which  were  engraved  the  ai-morial  bearings  of 
the  King  of  France.  He  officially  notified  the  Governor  of 
Pennsylvania  of  this  fact,  and  forbade  the  English  traders  to 


louisbuhg  —  du  quesne.  193 

trespass  on  the  territoiy  tliiis  claimed  by  the  Frencli,  iindcr 
pain  of  confiscation  of  their  goods.  He  also  jn-ojected  and 
partly  established  a  chain  of  forts  from  Montreal  to  the  Ohio 
and  the  Mississippi, —  as  at  La  Presentation  (Ogdcnsburg), 
one  of  stone  at  Toronto,  one  at  Detroit,  and  others  further 
•west 

Nearly  half  a  century  had  passed  since  the  cession  of  Acadia  to 
Great  Britain  l)y  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  ^''et  not  a  step  had  l)een 
taken  towards  its  settlement.  Two  small  garrisons  were  main- 
tained at  Annapolis  and  Canso, —  this,  and  nothing  more.  An 
energetic  movement  was  now  made  for  the  colonization  1749. 
of  the  country,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Board  of  Trade  and 
Plantations,  of  which  Lord  Halifax  was  the  President.  The 
close  of  the  late  war  set  at  liberty  a  largo  number  of  persons 
who  had  been  engaged  in  military  or  semi-military  occupations. 
Liberal  inducements  were  offered  intending  settlers.  A  free 
passage,  maintenance  for  a  year,  and  grants  of  land,  varying 
from  fifty  to  six  hundred  acres,  according  to  rank,  were  guar- 
anteed. The  Imperial  Government  voted  the  sum  of  £40,000 
to  defray  these  exjienses.  In  five  years  this  was  increased  to 
the  enormous  sum  of  over  £400,000.  On  account  of  its  mag- 
nificent harbour,  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world,  Chebucto,  or 
Halifax,  as  it  was  henceforth  to  be  called,  in  honour  of  the 
chief  projector  of  the  entei-prise,  was  selected  as  the  site  of 
the  new  settlement.  The  Honourable  Edward  Cornwallis  was 
appointed  Governor,  and  the  protection  of  British  law  and 
representative  institutions  was  promised. 

In  the  month  of  July,  1749,  Governor  Cornwallis,  in  H.  M. 
ship  "  Sphynx,"  followed  by  a  fleet  of  thii-teen  transports,  con- 
veying nearly  three  thousand  settlers, —  disbanded  soldiers,  re- 
tired officers,  mechanics,  labourers,  and  persons  of  various  rank, 
—  reached  Chebucto  Bay.  A  civil  government  was  promptly 
organized,  the  first  meeting  of  the  Council  being  held  on  ship- 
board in  the  harbour.  On  a  rising  ground,  overlooking  the 
noble  bay,  the  woods  were  cleared  and  the  streets  of  a  town 
laid  out.  In  busy  emulation,  the  whole  company  was  soon  at 
work,  and  before  winter  three  hundred  log-houses  were  con- 
25 


194  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

structed,  besides  a  fort,  store-houses,  and  residence  for  the 
Governor, —  the  whole  surrounded  by  a  palisade. 

Tlie  Governor  and  Council  took  prompt  measures  to  proclaim 
the  sovereignty  of  Great  Britain  over  the  entire  province. 
Deputies  were  summoned  from  the  French  settlements,  and 
commanded  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  King  George ,  as 
the  condition  of  enjoying  the  protection  of  his  government. 
The  deputies  wished  to  make  the  resei-vation,  that  they  should 
not  be  compelled  to  bear  arms  against  the  King  of  France  ;  but 
the  Governor  insisted  that  the  oath  should  be  one  of  absolute 
and  unconditional  allegiance. 

These  vigorous  measures  soon  aroused  the  jealousy  of  the 
French  in  Canada,  and  led  to  serious  acts  of  insubordination 
on  the  part  of  some  of  the  old  Acadian  colonists.  The  Abbe 
de  Loutre  especially,  a  violent  partisan  of  the  French,  alnised 
his  authority  and  influence  as  a  priest  to  prevent  his  country- 
men from  submitting  to  the  King  of  England.  He  is  also 
accused  of  having  instigated  the  IMicmac  Indians,  and  certain 
restless  spirits  among  the  Acadians,  to  attack  the  inftmt  settle- 
ments of  Halifax,  Dartmouth,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  har- 
bour, and  the  new  German  settlement  of  Lunenburg.  These 
marauders  even  attacked  the  English  vessels  in  Chebucto  Ba}', 
and  killed  or  wounded  part  of  their  crews.  Over  these,  the 
Governor  of  Louisburg  —  to  whom  remonstrance  was  made 
on  account  of  these  outrages  —  disavowed  any  control,  as  the 
aggressors  w^ere  living  w^ithin  British  territor3%  General  Corn- 
wallis,  Governor  of  Halifax,  was  therefore  obliged  to  reduce 
the  marauders  by  force.  They  refused  to  take  the  oath  of 
allegiance,  and  claimed  a  position  of  political  neutrality. 

The  Chevalier  de  la  Corne,  an  impetuous  officer,  was  de- 
spatched from  Quebec  with  eleven  hundred  French  and  Indians 
to  guard  the  ill-defined  frontier.  He  built  a  fort  at  Beau 
S^jour,  commanding  the  isthmus  which  connects  Nova  Scotia 
with  the  main-land,  on  ground  which  he  claimed  as  a  portion  of 
Canada,  and  made  it  a  rendezvous  for  malcontent  and  refugee 
Acadians.  Cornwallis  sent  Colonel  LawTcnce,  with  four  hun- 
dred men,  from   Halifax   to  watch   his   movements.     On   his 


LOUISBURG  —  DU  QUESNE.  I95 

approach  the  Acadian  "neutrals,"  at  the  instigation  of  their 
priests,  burned  the  settlement  of  Beaubassin,  within  1750. 
the  British  territory,  and  retired  to  the  protection  of  the 
French  fort.  Lawrence  returned  for  re-enforcements,  and 
later  in  the  season  landed,  though  stoutly  opposed,  and  built  a 
fort  in  close  proximity  to  Beau  Sejour,  on  the  opposite  side  of 
the  Messagouche,  which  was,  for  the  time,  accepted  as  the 
boundary  line.  This  was  the  first  blood  shed  between  France 
and  England  after  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

La  Jonquiere,  liberated  by  the  peace,  had  superseded  Galis- 
soniere  as  Governor,*  and  timidly  followed  the  policy  of  his 
predecessor.  He  was  consumed  by  an  ignoble  avarice,  and 
used  every  means  to  enrich  himself  at  the  expense  of  the 
colony ;  yet  even  in  his  last  hours,  he  denied  himself  the  com- 
forts of  life.  Fraud  and  peculation  impoverished  the  people, 
who  demanded  his  recall ;  but  he  died  before  the  arrival  of 
his  successor,  Du  Quesne.  Bigot,  his  Litendant,  was,  1752. 
if  possible,  even  more  corrupt  than  the  miserly  Governor,  and 
added  the  vices  of  licentiousness  and  extravagance  to  those  of 
meanness  and  avarice.  He  mocked  the  misery  of  the  people 
by  his  ostentatious  profligacy,  and  aped  the  sensualism  of  the 
court  of  Louis  XV.  at  his  palace  in  Quebec,  and  at  his  chateau 
at  Beauport.  By  his  extortion  and  peculation  as  a  civil  admin- 
istrator, he  had  already  won  an  evil  reputation  in  Louisiana  and 
Cape  Breton,  but  was  destined  to  reach  the  culmination  of  his 
infamy  in  Canada, 

Do  Quesne,  the  new  Governor,  entered  upon  a  vigorous 
aggressive  policy.  He  organized  and  drilled  the  militia,  gar- 
risoned the  western  forts,  and  established  new  posts  at  Presque 
Isle,  on  Lake  Erie,  and  at  Le  Beuf  and  Venango,  in  the  Ohio 
valley.  Dinwiddle,  the  Governor  of  Virginia,  sent,  as  1733. 
an  envoy,  to  warn  the  French  from  the  occupation  of  territory 
claimed  by  the  British,  George  Washington,  then  in  his  twenty- 
fii'st  year.      The    youthful  ambassador    found  the   intruders 

*  Galissoui^re  returned  to  France,  sen'ed  on  the  Boundaries  Commission, 
rejoined  the  navy,  and,  after  defeating  the  unhappy  Admiral  Byng  at  Minorca, 
died  in  1756. 


196  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

strongly  entrenched  at  Venango  and  Le  Beuf.  "I  am  here," 
said  the  French  commandant,  "by  the  orders  of  my  general, 
to  which  I  shall  conform  with  exactness  and  resolution.  He 
has  instructed  me  to  seize  every  Englishman  in  the  Ohio  valley, 
and  I  shall  do  it." 

Through  wintry  weather  and  pathless  woods,  Washington 
returned  over  the  mountains  to  Virginia.  Twice  on  the  route 
he  nearly  lost  his  life,  once  by  the  point-blank  fire  of  a  lurking 
Indian,  and  once  by  the  swollen  and  ice-burdened  torrent  of 
the  Alleghany  River. 

The  "  Ohio  Company,"  composed  of  London  and  Virginia  mer- 
1754.  chants,  now  began  a  settlement  and  fort  at  the  junction  of 
the  Monongahela  and  Alleghany  rivers,  where  Pittsburg  now 
stands.  A  strong  force  of  French,  under  M.  Contrecoeur, 
seized  the  fort,  and  having  completed  its  defences,  gave  it  the 
name  of  Du  Quesne.  Governor  Dinwiddle  had,  meanwhile, 
despatched  a  force,  under  George  Washington,  now  a  lieutenant- 
colonel,  to  hold  the  fort  for  the  English.  Contrecceur  sent  M. 
Jumonville,  with  a  small  party  of  soldiers,  to  warn  him  off 
what  was  claimed  as  French  territory.  Washington,  aware  of 
their  approach,  apprehending  that  their  purpose  was  hostile, 
and  eager  to  distinguish  himself,  surprised  them,  at  break  of 
day,  encamped  in  a  narrow  valley.  The  French  sprang  to 
arms.  "Fire  !  "  cried  Washington.  '*  That  word,"  says  Ban- 
croft, "kindled  the  world  into  a  flame."  It  precipitated  the 
earth-shaking  conflict  on  the  plains  of  India,  on  the  waters  of 
the  Mediterranean  and  the  Spanish  Main,  on  the  Gold  Coast  of 
Africa,  on  the  ramparts  of  Louisburg,  on  the  heights  of  Quebec, 
and  here  in  the  valley  of  the  Ohio,  which  led  to  the  utter  de- 
feat of  the  French,  and  the  destruction  of  their  sovereignty  on 
this  continent,  and  prepared  the  way  for  the  independence  of 
the  United  States.  In  the  very  beginning,  as  well  as  at  the  end, 
Washington  was  a  prominent  actor  in  the  eventful  drama,  which 
became  the  epoch  of  a  great  nation.  A  shai*p  engagement  of  a 
few  minutes  ensued,  in  which  Jumonville  and  ten  Frenchmen 
fell,  and  twenty-one  were  captured.  The  French  denounced 
the  attack  on  Jumonville,  while  in  the  character  of  an  envoy,  as 


LOUISBURG  —  DU  QUESNE.  197 

miircler ;  but  there  is  no  evidence  that  "Washington  was  aware 
of  his  commission. 

"Washington  threw  up  entrenchments  at  Great  Meadows, 
which  he  named  Fort  Necessity,  and  with  four  hundred  men 
held  his  ground  for  a  month.  Attacked  by  a  force  of  nine 
hundred  French  and  Indians,  commanded  by  a  brother  of  the 
slain  Jumonville,  and  occupying  an  untenable  position  between 
two  hills,  he  capitulated,  after  ten  hours'  resistance,  leaving  the 
entke  Ohio  valley  in  the  possession  of  the  French, 


198 


BISTORT  OF  CANADA. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

THE  CAMPAIGN  OF  1755. 

Convention  of  British  Colonists  at  Albany  —  William  Jolinson  —  British  Naval 
Victories  —  Braddock,  Commander-in-Chief — His  Arbitrary  Character  — 
His  Defeat  at  the  Monongahcla  —  The  Expedition  against  Fort  Niagara  a 
Failure  —  Johnson  Defeats  Dieskau  at  Lake  George  —  Capture  of  Beau 
S^jour  —  The  Acadian  Neutrals  —  Micmac  Outrages  —  The  Tragedy  of  Grand 
Pre  —  Expulsion  of  the  Acadians. 

IT  was  now  felt  that  war  was  inevitable.  A  convention  of 
deputies  of  the  English  colonies  was  forthwith  held  at 
Albany,  to  concert  measures  of  defence.  The  astute  Franklin 
proposed  a  federal  union,  after  the 
manner  of  the  league  of  the  Six 
Nations.  *'It  would  be  a  strange 
thing,"  said  that  philosophical  poli- 
tician, *'  if  a  community  of  ignorant 
savages  should  be  capable  of  forming 
such  a  union,  and  maintaining  it  un- 
broken for  ages,  and  yet,  if  a  similar 
^  union  should  be  impracticable  for  ten 
or  a  dozen  English  colonies,  to  whom 
it  is  more  necessary,  and  must  be 
more  advantageous."  The  mutual 
jealousies  of  the  different  colonies, 
and  of  the  mother  country,  however, 
prevented  its  consummation.  It  was  only  at  a  later  day,  and 
as  the  result  of  a  fierce  struggle,  that  the  political  organization 
was  formed,  which  has  had  such  an  eventful  and  prosperous 
history  during  the  last  century. 

A  prominent  character  in  colonial  history  comes  now  into 
view.  William  Johnson,  afterwards  knighted  for  his  services, 
was  the  younger  son  of  an  Irish  gentleman  of  good  family. 
Crossed  in  a  love  affair,  he  came  to  America  in  his  nineteenth 
year,  and  assumed  the  charge  of  a  large  tract  of  laud  in  the 


FRANKLIX, 


CAMPAIGX   OF  1755. 


199 


SIR  \riLLIAM  JOHNSON. 


province  of  New  York,  the  property  of  his  imcle,  Admiral  Sir 
Peter  "Warren.  He  settled  ill  the  Mohawk  valley,  and  lived  in 
a  sort  of  feudal  state,  alternately  at  Johnson 
Castle  and  Johnson  Hall,  two  strongly  forti- 
fied buildings,  the  latter  of  which  is  still 
standing.  He  carried  on  a  prosperous  trade 
with  the  Indians,  and  by  his  integrity  of 
character  gained  a  remarkable  influence  over 
them.  This  he  increased  by  marrying,  after 
the  forest  manner,  Molly  Brant,  a  sister  of 
the  celebrated  Mohawk  chief,  Tyendenaga,  or 
Joseph  Brant,  afterwards  famous  in  border  warfare.  Johnson 
was  adopted  by  the  Mohawks  as  a  member  of  their  tribe,  and 
chosen  as  one  of  their  great  sachems.  The  French  endeavoured 
to  detach  the  Iroquois  from  their  allegiance  to  the  English. 
For  this  purpose,  they  founded  a  mission  and  school  at  La 
Presentation,  and  acquired  over  them  a  remarkable  influence. 
They  purposed,  also,  to  establish  a  mission  at  Lake  Onondaga; 
but  Johnson  purchased  the  lake  and  all  the  land  for  two  miles 
around  it,  and  continued,  during  the  war,  the  bulwark  of 
British  authority  upon  the  troubled  frontier. 

The  British  ministry,  on  hearing  of  the  collision  in  the  Ohio 
valley,  determined  on  a  vigorous  campaign,  and  de-  1735. 
spatched  General  Braddock,  with  two  royal 
regiments,  to  assume  supreme  military  com- 
mand in  the  colonies.  The  choice  was  an 
unfortunate  one.  Braddock  was  a  brave  sol- 
dier, but  a  martinet, —  arrogant,  perverse, 
obstinate.  The  Duke  of  Cumberland,  the 
British  commander-in-chief,  estranged  the 
sympathy  of  the  colonists.  "He  had  no 
confidence,"  he  declared,  "  except  in  regular 
troops  ; "  and  ordered  that  the  generals  and 
field-officers  of  the  provincial  forces,  should 
have  no  rank  when  serving  with  officers  bear- 
ing the  royal  commission.  Colonel  Washington,  resenting 
this  indignity,  retired  from  the  service,  and  his  regiment  was 


GENERAL   BRADDOCK. 


200  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

disbanded ;  but  even  Braddock's  perversity  did  not  prevent 
him  from  perceiving  the  impolicy  of  this  order^  and  several  of 
the  colonial  officers  received  appointments  on  his  stajff. 

The  French  also  strengthened  their  forces  in  Canada  by 
sending  out  Baron  Dieskau,  an  officer  of  distinction,  who  had 
served  under  Marshal  Saxe,  with  several  veteran  battalions, 
numbering  in  all  about  three  thousand  men.  Admiral  Bos- 
cawen,  with  eleven  ships  of  the  line,  intercepted  a  portion  of 
the  fleet  bearing  Dieskau's  forces,  oif  the  Banks  of  Newfound- 
land. *'  Are  we  at  peace  or  war?  "  inquired  the  French  com- 
mander. A  broadside  from  the  Englishman  was  the  answer, 
and  the  French  frigates,  "Alcide"  and  "Lys,"  soon  struck 
their  colours.  Under  cover  of  a  fog,  Dieskau,  with  the  rest  of 
his  squadron  escaped,  and  safely  reached  Quebec.  British 
privateers  now  swept  the  seas,  and  during  the  year,  captured 
three  hundred  French  vessels  and  eight  thousand  sailors. 

With  the  fleet  that  brought  Dieskau  and  his  soldiers,  came 
also  the  new  Governor  of  Canada,  the  Marquis  de  Vaudreuil- 
Cavagnac.  He  was  a  native  of  Quebec,  being  the  son  of  the 
former  Governor,  De  Vaudrueil,  whose  memory  was  cherished 
with  respect,  and  for  whose  sake  his  son  received  a  cordial 
welcome.  The  Marquis  Du  Quesne,  preferring  the  French 
naval  service,  had  already  resigned  the  vice-royalty. 

The  plan  of  the  campaign  of  1755,  as  devised  by  the  British 
ministry,  comprehended  a  simultaneous  attack  on  the  French, 
at  Fort  Du  Quesne,  in  the  Ohio  valley,  at  Niagara,  at  Fort 
Frederic  or  Crown  Point,  and  at  Fort  Beau  Sejour,  in  Acadia. 
The  main  enterprise,  that  against  Fort  Du 
Quesne,  was  assigned  to  General  Braddock. 
He  attempted  to  wage  war  amid  the  wilds  of 
America  after  the  manner  of  a  European  cam- 
paign. He  treated  with  disdain  the  provincial 
troops,  and  rejected  the  counsels  of  Washing- 
ton and  other  backwoods  fighters.  He  was 
full  of  confidence  as  to  his  easy  success  in  this  unfamiliar 
forest  warfare.  "Fort  Du  Quesne,"  he  said,  to  Franklin, 
*'  can  hardly  detain  me  above  three  or  four  days,  and  then  I 


CAMPAIOy  OF  1753.  201 

sec  nothing  that  can  obstruct  my  march  to  Niagara."  "The 
Indians  are  dexterous  in  laying  and  executing  ambuscades," 
Franklin  replied.  *'The  savages  maybe  formidable  to  your 
raw  American  militia,"  Braddock  haughtily  answered;  *'but 
upon  the  King's  regulars  and  disciplined  troops,  it  is  impossible 
that  they  should  make  any  impression."  He  was  destined  to 
be  soon  undeceived. 

Twenty-seven  days  were  consumed  in  the  march  from  Alex- 
andria, on  the  Potomac,  to  Fort  Cumberland,  on  the  head- 
waters of  that  river.  Here  several  weeks  were  spent  in  camp, 
drilling  a  contingent  of  raw  militia,  and  preparing  a  wagon- 
train.  Early  in  June,  the  little  army  of  twenty-three  hundred 
men  left  Fort  Cumberland.  A  hundred  expert  axe-men  went 
ahead,  and  the  crash  of  falling  trees  heralded  the  advance  of 
the  expedition.  With  infinite  toil  a  path  was  hewed  through 
the  wilderness,  and  over  the  mountains,  and  every  creek  was 
bridged.  An  unwieldly  baggage  and  artillery  train,  extending 
several  miles,  was  dragged  over  the  rugged  road  by  straining 
horses.  Learning  that  Fort  Du  Quesne  was  being  re-enforced, 
Braddock,  with  twelve  hundred  picked  men,  pressed  on  with 
the  lighter  baggage  and  artillery,  and  left  the  rest  of  the  army, 
under  command  of  Colonel  Dunbar,  to  follow  with  the  heavy 
wagons. 

On  the  9th  of  July,  the  advance  body  had  reached  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  Monongahela.  The  march  was  conducted  in 
a  most  unvigilant  manner.  "Washington,  who  commanded  some 
companies  of  Virginia  militia,  and  was  attached  to  Braddock's 
staff,  so  urgently  warned  the  headstrong  general  of  the  peril 
of  Indian  attack,  that  he  was  ordered,  in  a  moment  of  irrita- 
tion, to  assume  the  inglorious  duties  of  rear-guard.  They 
were  now  within  nine  miles  of  Fort  Du  Quesne.  Contrecoeur, 
the  French  commandant,  was  about  to  give  it  up  for  lost ;  but 
Beaujeu,  a  captain  of  the  garrison,  proposed  to  waylay  and 
attack  the  British  in  the  woods,  and  with  a  party  of  French 
and  Indians,  sallied  forth  for  that  purpose. 

Meanwhile,  Braddock's  command,  on  that  brilliant  midsum- 
mer day,  forded  the  river  and  entered  the  forest  beyond.     It 

26 


202  HISTORY  OF  CAXADA. 

was  a  gallant  sight, —  the  bannered  array,  the  scarlet  uniforms, 
the  gleam  of  bayonets,  as  the  little  army,  with  flying  colours, 
unconsciously  pressed  on  to  its  fate, —  the  fife  and  drum  corps 
making  the  forest  ring  with  the  inspiring  strains  of  "  The 
British  Grenadiers."  As  they  entered  a  narrow  defile,  sud- 
denly the  deadly  war-whoop  rang,  and  a  murderous  fire  was 
poured  into  their  ranks  by  unseen  enemies,  lurking  amid  the 
shadows  of  the  primeval  forest. 

For  two  hours,  the  deadly  conflict  continued.  The  British 
regulars  were  thrown  into  confusion,  and,  huddled  together  like 
sheep,  fell  by  scores,  their  solid  platoons  being  mowed  down 
by  the  fire  of  the  concealed  French  and  Indians,  till,  panic- 
stricken,  they  broke  and  fled.  In  vain  their  officers  sought  to 
rally  them.  Braddock  had  five  horses  shot  under  him,  and  fell 
mortally  wounded  by  a  ball  that  shattered  his  arm  and  pene- 
trated his  lung.  The  colonial  troops,  under  Colonel  Washing- 
ton, displayed  a  steadiness  that  put  the  regulars  to  shame, 
fighting  skilfully,  after  the  bush  manner,  behind  the  trees  ; 
but  scarce  one-fifth  of  their  number  left  the  field  alive.  Of  the 
English,  seven  hundred  and  fourteen,  or  more  than  half  the 
entire  command,  were  killed  or  wounded.  The  fugitives  fled 
through  the  night,  and  paused  not  till  they  reached  the  baggage 
camp,  forty  miles  back.  They  communicated  their  panic  to 
Dunbar's  troops,  who  broke  up  camp  in  dismay,  burned  their 
baggage,  provisions,  and  stores,  to  the  value  of  £100,000,  and 
precipitately  retreated  to  Fort  Cumberland  and  Philadelphia. 
Braddock  was  borne,  in  a  dying  condition,  with  his  fl^'ing 
army.  "  Who  would  have  thought  it !  "  he  murmured,  rousing 
himself  from  a  lethargy ;  "we  shall  better  know  how  to  deal 
with  them  another  time."  But  his  dear-bought  experience 
came  too  late  ;  that  night  he  died. 

The  French,  who  were  only  some  two  hundred  and  fifty  in 
number,  attempted  no  pursuit ;  and  their  six  hundred  savage 
allies  reaped  a  rich  harvest  of  scalps,  and  booty,  and  brilliant 
British  uniforms.  Fifteen  cannon,  and  Braddock's  military- 
chest,  containing  the  dispatches  of  the  British  ministry,  which 
revealed  their  design  with  respect  to  Canada,  became  also  the 


CAMPAIGN  OF  1755. 


203 


spoil  of  the  conqueror.  The  assailants  lost  only  forty  men. 
This  disastrous  rout,  brought  on  the  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia 
settlements  all  the  horrors  of  a  merciless  border  warfare.  The 
western  tribes  seized  their  tomahawks  and  turned  into  one  wide 
scene  of  havoc  the  entire  English  frontier. 

The  expedition  against  Fort  Niagara,  failed  even  to  reach  its 
destination.  Disheartened  by  Braddock's  defeat,  the  militia 
deserted  by  scores ;  and  the  Iroquois,  wavering  in  their  alle- 
giance, disputed  its  right  of  way  through  their  territory.  Reach- 
ing Lake  Ontario,  in  August,  Shirley,  its  commander,  left 
seven  hundred  men  to  garrison  Oswego,  and  returned  with  the 
remainder  to  Albany. 

For  William  Johnson,  the  colonial  militia  officer,  was  re- 
served the  honour  of  redeeming  the  reputation  of  the  British 
arms,  tarnished  by  the  disastrous  defeat  of  Braddock,  the  vet- 
eran European  soldier.  Early  in  July,  the  hardy  New  Eng- 
land and  New  York  militia,  to  the  number  of  five  thousand 
men,  assembled  at  Albany,  for  the  purpose  of  making  an  at- 
tack on  Crown  Point,  which  was  strongly  garrisoned  by  the 
French.  This  force,  led  by  General  Lyman, 
advanced  forty  miles  up  the  Hudson  River, 
and  constructed  Fort  Edward,  as  a  depot  for 
provisions,  and  point  of  support  in  case  of 
defeat.  Towards  the  end  of  August,  John- 
son joined  the  untrained  army  and  conducted 
it  across  the  portage  of  twelve  miles,  to 
the  southern  extremity  of  the  lake,  called 
by  the  French,  Lake  of  the  Holy  Sacrament. 
"I  found,"  said  Johnson,  "a  mere  wilder- 
ness ;  never  was  house  or  fort  erected  here 
before."  He  re-named  this  beautiful  expanse 
of  waters,  Lake  George,  and  constructed  on 
its  shore,  a  camp  for  five  thousand  men.  Here  much  time 
was  spent  in  languid  preparation  for  the  attack  on  Crown 
Point. 

Meanwhile,  Baron  Dieskau  had  been  more  active.  He  had 
been  despatched  from  Quebec  to  attack  the  British  garrison  at 


I-AKE  GEORGE. 


204  HISTORY  OF  CAXADA. 

the  mouth  of  the  Oswego  Eiver ;  but  learning  the  peril  that 
menaced  Crown  Point,  Vaudreuil  had  directed  him  to  proceed 
to  the  support  of  that  fort.  He  advanced  rapidly,  with  seven 
hundred  regular  troops,  fifteen  hundred  Canadian  militia,  and 
seven  hundred  Indian  warriors  to  the  menaced  fortress.  Leav- 
ing part  of  his  force  at  Crown  Point,  he  pressed  on,  with  six 
hundred  Indians,  as  many  Canadians,  and  two  hundred  picked 
regulars,  intendnig  to  fall  on  Fort  Edward.  Johnson,  obtam- 
ing  intelligence  of.  this  movement,  sent  a  thousand  men  to 
intercept  him.  They  fell  into  an  ambuscade  of  French  and 
Indians,  were  badly  cut  up,  and  retreated  on  the  main  body, 
hotly  pursued  by  Dieskau.  Johnson  prepared  for  an  attack. 
Although  this  was  his  first  campaign,  he  had  planted  his  camp 
with  gi'eat  skill, —  flanked  by  marshes  on  the  right  and  left,  and 
partially  protected  by  a  breastwork  of  trees  in  front.  The 
French  advanced  to  the  charge  under  a  murderous  fire  of  the 
New  England  sharpshooters.  Most  of  the  French  regulars 
were  killed  or  wounded.  After  a  fierce  contest  of  four  hours, 
they  were  compelled  to  retreat  precipitately,  closely  pursued 
by  the  British,  to  their  entrenched  camp  at  Ticonderoga,  at  the 
northern  end  of  the  lake.  They  lost  nearly  as  many  as  had  the 
English  in  Braddock's  defeat,  and  from  the  same  cause, —  the 
rash  confidence  of  the  commander  in  the  tactics  of  regular 
troops,  as  opposed  to  the  skilled  wood-craft  of  militia-men. 
Dieskau,  being  severely  wounded,  was  made  prisoner.  John- 
son, who  had  lost  three  hundred  men,  prudently  declined  the 
risk  of  leading  his  raw  troops  against  the  ramparts  of  Ticon- 
deroga. Having  built  and  garrisoned  Fort  William  Henry,  on 
the  site  of  the  conflict,  he  fell  back  on  Albany,  where  his 
forces  were  disbanded.  He  received  a  grant  of  £5,000  and  a 
knighthood  for  his  achievement. 

In  the  spring  of  the  year.  Colonel  Moncton,  with  forty-one 
vessels  and  two  thousand  men,  had  sailed  from  Boston  to  re- 
duce Fort  Beau  Sejour,  in  the  Acadian  isthmus,  to  which  the 
French  still  laid  claim.  Ill-manned  by  a  few  hundred  refugees 
and  a  handful  of  soldiers,  it  capitulated,  after  four  days'  invest- 
ment, and  was  re-named   Fort   Cumberland.      Captain  Kous, 


CAMPAIGN  OF  1755.  205 

who  had  charge  of  the  naval  part  of  the  expedition,  now  sailed 
to  the  mouth  of  the  St.  John  to  attack  the  fort  recently  con- 
structed there  by  the  French.  On  his  arrival,  he  was  saved 
that  trouble,  as  its  occupants  hastily  abandoned  it,  having  dis- 
mantled, and,  as  far  as  possible,  destroyed  the  works. 

The  Acadian  peasants,  on  the  beautiful  shores  of  the  Bay  of 
Fundy,  were  a  simple,  virtuous,  and  prosperous  community. 
Their  civil  disputes,  when  any  arose,  which  was  rare,  were  all 
settled  by  the  kindly  intervention  of  their  priest,  who  also 
made  their  wills  and  drew  up  their  public  acts.  If  wealth  was 
rare,  poverty  was  unknown ;  for  a  feeling  of  brotherhood 
anticipated  the  claims  of  want.  Domestic  happiness  and  public 
morality  were  fostered  by  early  marriages ;  and  homely  thrift 
was  rewarded  by  almost  universal  comfort.  Such  is  the 
delightful  picture  painted  by  the  sympathetic  pen  of  the  Abbe 
Eaynal, —  a  picture  that  almost  recalls  the  innocence  and  hap- 
piness of  the  poets'  fabled  Golden  Age. 

"  Thus  dwelt  in  love,  those  simple  Acadian  farmers." 

With  remarkable  industry,  they  had  reclaimed  from  the  sea  by 
dykes,  many  thousands  of  fertile  acres,  which  produced  abun- 
dant crops  of  grain  and  orchard  fruits  ;  and  on  the  sea  meadows, 
at  one  time,  grazed  as  many  as  sixty  thousand  head  of  cattle. 
The  simple  wants  of  the  peasants  were  supplied  by  domestic 
manufactures  of  flax  or  woollen,  or  by  importations  from  Louis- 
burg.  So  great  was  their  attachment  to  the  government  and 
institutions  of  their  fatherland,  that  during  the  aggressions  of 
the  English,  after  their  conquest  of  the  country,  a  great  part 
of  the  population, —  some  ten  thousand,  it  has  beeu  said, 
although  the  munber  is  disputed, —  abandoned  their  homes  and 
migi-ated  to  that  portion  of  Acadia  still  claimed  by  the  French, 
or  to  Cape  Breton,  or  Canada.  Some  seven  thousand  still 
remained  in  the  peninsula  of  Nova  Scotia ;  but  they  claimed 
a  political  neutrality,  resolutely  refusing  to  take  the  oath  of 
allegiance  to  the  alien  conquerors.  '<  Better,"  said  the  priests 
to  their  obedient  flock,  <*  durrender  your  meadows  to  the  sea, 
and  your  houses  to  the  flames,  than  peril  your  souls  by  taking 


206  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

that  obnoxious  oath."  They  were  accused,  and  probably  with 
only  too  good  reason,  of  intriguing  with  their  countrymen 
at  Louisburg,  with  resisting  the  English  authority,  and  with 
inciting  and  even  leading  the  Indians  to  ravage  the  English 
settlements 

The  cruel  Micmacs  needed  little  instigation.  They  swooped 
down  on  the  little  town  of  Dartmouth,  opposite  Halifax,  and 
within  gunshot  of  its  forts,  and  reaped  a  rich  harvest  of  scalps 
and  booty.  The  English  prisoners  they  sometimes  sold  at 
Louisburg  for  arms  and  ammunition ;  the  French  Governor 
asserted  that  pure  compassion  was  the  motive  of  this  traffic, 
in  order  to  rescue  the  captives  from  massacre.  He  demanded, 
however,  an  excessive  ransom  for  their  liberation.  The  Li- 
diaus  were  sometimes,  or  indeed  generally,  it  was  asserted,  led 
in  these  murderous  raids  by  French  commanders.  These  viola- 
tions of  neutrality,  however,  were  chiefly  the  work  of  a  few 
turbulent  spirits.  The  mass  of  the  Acadian  peasants  seem  to 
have  been  a  peaceful  and  inoffensive  people,  although  they 
naturally  sympathized  with  their  countrymen,  and  rejoiced  at 
the  victory  of  Du  Quesne,  and  sorrowed  at  the  defeat  of  Lake 
George. 

The  Governor  of  the  province  was  embarrassed  by  the 
peculiar  situation  of  this  nonjuring  population,  and  scarce 
knew  what  course  to  adopt  toward  them.  They  could  scarcely 
be  considered  rebels,  for  they  had  never  sworn  allegiance  to 
the  British  Crown.  Neither  were  they  prisoners  of  war,  since, 
for  nearly  half  a  century,  they  had  been  permitted  to  retain 
jDOSsessiou  of  their  lands.  Their  evident  sympathy  with  their 
countrymen  and  co-religionists  in  Canada  and  Cape  Breton, 
alarmed  Governor  Lawrence  and  the  Council  at  Halifax,  and 
it  was  decreed  that  the  whole  French  population  should  be  dis- 
armed, and  that  their  boats  should  be  seized,  in  order  to  pre- 
vent them  from  aiding  the  enemy.  Vexatious  requisitions  were 
made  in  a  manner  which  rendered  them  doubly  offensive.  They 
were  informed  by  British  officers,  that  unless  they  furnished 
the  military  posts  with  fuel,  their  houses  would  be  used  for 
that  purpose.     If  they  failed  to  provide  the  supplies  demanded. 


CAMPAIGX   OF  1755.  207 

without  stipulating  any  terms  as  to  payment,  they  were  threat- 
ened with  immediate  military  execution.* 

As  there  were  continued  and  frequent  violations  of  their 
professed  neutrality,  on  the  part  of  the  Acadians,  and  as  three 
hundred  of  them  had  been  found  in  arms  against  the  British, 
at  the  taking  of  Beau  S(3Jour,  it  was  resolved  by  the  Council  at 
Halifox,  that  they  must  take  the  unconditional  oath  of  alle- 
giance to  the  King  of  England.  Deputies  were  summoned 
from  the  Acadian  settlements  to  Halifax,  to  express  the  decision 
of  their  compatriots.  They  absolutely  declined  to  take  the  ob- 
noxious oath,  unless  accompanied  by  the  exemption  from  bear- 
ing arms.  This  exemption  was  refused,  and  the  deputies  were 
imprisoned  and  warned  of  the  serious  consequences  of  their 
act.  They  still  refused  to  violate  what  they  seem  to  have 
regarded  almost  as  a  religious  principle.  They  were  now  de- 
clared rebels  and  outlaws,  and  the  Council  at  Halifax,  confound- 
ing the  innocent  with  the  guilty,  decreed  the  expulsion  of  the 
entire  French  population.  In  order  to  prevent  their  strength- 
ening the  French,  in  Cape  Breton  or  Canada,  it  was  decided  to 
distribute  them  among  the  several  British  colonies  of  North 
America.  Circulars  were  therefore  addressed  to  the  colonial 
Governors  of  North  Carolina,  Virginia,  Maryland,  Pennsyl- 
vania, New  York,  Connecticut  and  Massachusetts,  stating  the 
reasons  for  this  wholesale  expatriation,  and  urging  them  to 
prevent  the  re-union  of  the  exiles,  or  their  subsequent  mo- 
lestation of  the  country,  from  which  they  were  about  to  be 
driven. 

The  execution  of  this  stern  purpose  was  committed  chiefly 
to  New  England  forces,  under  the  command  of  Colonel 
Wiuslow.  A  number  of  transports  were  collected  in  Boston 
harbour,  and  the  utmost  secrecy  was  observed  till  they  were 
anchored  off  the  French  settlements,  on  the  Bay  of  Fundy, 

*  Conucil  Records  at  Halifax,  as  quoted  in  Haliburton's  History  of  Nora 
Scotia,  vol.  I.,  p.  1G9: — "  No  excuse  sliall  be  taken  for  not  bringing  in  fire- wood, 
and  if  they  do  not  do  it  in  proper  time,  the  soldiers  sliall  absolutely  take  tbeir 
houses  for  fuel."  ..."  They  are  not  to  be  bargained  with  for  the  payment, 
but  you  will  furnish  them  with  certificates,  which  will  entitle  them  to  Buch 
payments  at  Halifax,  as  shall  be  thought  reasonable." 


208  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

and  iu  the  Basin  of  Minas.  The  unsuspecting  Acadians  had 
heeu  allowed  to  gather  in  their  fruitful  harvest,  and  their  barns 
were  bursting  Tvith  plenty.  On  one  and  the  same  day,  the 
5th  of  September,  the  entire  male  population,  over  ten  years 
old,  were  ordered,  under  heavy  penalties,  to  assemble  in  the 
several  settlements. 

Let  one  example  of  this  cruel  expatriation  suffice. 

At  Grand  Pre,  four  hundred  and  eighteen  persons  assembled 
in  the  village  church,  when  the  British  officer  read  from  the 
altar  the  decree  of  their  exile.  Their  lands,  houses,  cattle,  and 
crops  were  pronounced  confiscated.  Their  money  and  house- 
hold goods  they  might  carry  with  them,  as  far  as  possible  with- 
out overcrowding  the  vessels.  Loud  was  the  outcry,  and 
bitter  the  denunciation  of  the  cruel  mandate.  But  resistance 
was  impossible ;  armed  soldiers  guarded  the  door ;  the  men 
were  encaged  in  prison,  and  were  confined  under  guard  for 
four  days.  On  the  fifth  day,  they  were  marched,  at  the  bay- 
onet's point,  amid  the  wailings  of  their  relatives,  to  the  shore, 
and  placed  on  board  the  transports.  The  women  and  children 
were  shipped  in  other  vessels.  Families  were  scattered ;  hus- 
bands and  wives  separated, —  many  never  to  meet  again.  The 
night  that  followed  was  made  lurid  by  the  flames  of  burning 
homesteads,  well-filled  barns,  and  stacks  of  corn,  while  herds 
of  afi'righted  cattle  and  horses  rushed  wildly  over  the  meadows.* 
It  was  -three  months  later,  in  the  bleak  December,  before  the 
last  of  the  exiles  were  removed.  For  a  long  time  afterwards, 
advertisements  for  the  strayed  and  missing,  in  the  colonial 
newspapers,  attested  the  efibrts  of  those  banished  ones  to  re- 
unite the  scattered  links  of  the  broken  family  circle. 

At  Annapolis,  a  hundred  householders,  unwilling  to  abandon 
their  homes,  fled  to  the  woods,  and  were  hunted  like  beasts  of 
prey.     Others   found   refuge  among  the  Indians,  or  escaped 

*  The  number  removed  from  Grand  Pr^  was  nineteen  hundred  and  twenty- 
tliree  ijersons.  In  the  District  of  Minas  alone,  two  hundred  and  fifty-five 
houses,  two  hundred  and  seventy-six  barns,  one  hundred  and  fifty -four  out- 
houses, eleven  mills,  and  one  church  were  burned.  Thousands  of  cattle  were 
confiscated  by  the  English. 


CAMPAIGN  OF  1755.  209 

through  the  wilderness  to  Canada.  A  number,  estimated  at 
from  seven  to  eight  thousand,  were'  dispersed  along  the 
Atlantic  seaboard,  from  Maine  to  Georgia.  The  colonial  Gov- 
ernors were  required  to  detain  the  exiles  as  prisoners.  Twelve 
hundred  were  carried  to  South  Carolina.  A  few  planted  a  new 
Acadia  among  their  countrymen  in  Louisiana.  Some  tried  to 
return  to  their  blackened  hearths,  coasting  in  open  boats  along 
the  shore.  These  were  relentlessly  intercepted  when  possible, 
and  sent  back  into  hopeless  exile. 

An  imperishable  interest  has  been  imparted  to  this  sad  story 
by  Longfellow's  beautiful  poem,  "  Evangeline,"  which  describes 
the  sufferings  and  sorrows  of  some  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
little  village  of  Grand  Pre.  It  is  a  page  in  our  country's  an- 
nals that  is  not  pleasant  to  contemplate,  but  we  may  not  ignore 
the  painful  facts.  Every  patriot  must  regret  the  stern  military 
necessity, —  if  necessity  there  were, —  that  compelled  the  in- 
conceivable suffering  of  so  many  innocent  beings.  Save  the 
expulsion  of  the  Moriscoes  from  Spain,  and  of  the  Huguenots 
from  France,  history  offers  no  parallel  to  this  unhappy  event. 

27 


210  IIJSTOEF   OF  CANADA. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

CAMPAIGNS  OF  1756  AND   1757. 

The  Seven  Years'  War  Begun,  1756  —  Respective  Condition  of  the  Frencli  and 
Euglisli  in  America  —  Bradstreet's  Gallant  Exploit  —  Montcalm  Captures 
Fort  Oswego  —  Immense  Booty  —  Loudon's  Futile  Attempt  against  Louis- 
burg  —  Montcalm  Reduces  Fort  William  Henry  —  Indian  Massacre  of  Twelve 
Hundred  British  Prisoners  —  Exhaustion  of  Canada  —  Famine  —  Extortion 
and  Profligacy  of  Bigot  and  His  Associates. 

NOTWITPISTANDING  the  hostile  demonstrations  of  the 
year  1755,  including  the  fierce  fights  of  Fort  Dii  Quesne 
and  Lake  George,  war  was  not  formally  declared  till  the  follow- 
ing spring  (1756).  France,  Austria,  and  Eussia  were  com- 
bined against  England  and  Prussia,  for  the  prolonged  and  bitter 
struggle  of  the  Seven  Years'  War.  It  seemed  at  first  as  though 
the  combination  must  be  fatal  to  Britain  and  her  ally.  But  the 
political  sagacity  of  William  Pitt,  and  the  military  genius  of 
Frederick  the  Great,  with  the  lavish  expenditure  of  treasure 
and  blood,  humbled  their  enemies,  and  raised  their  respective 
countries  to  the  summit  of  glory.  The  "  Great  Commoner" 
made  good  his  proud  boast,  that  "England  should  moult  no 
feather  of  her  crest."  Clive's  stupendous  victory  on  the  plains 
of  Plassey,  gave  her  her  Indian  Empire,  and  Wolfe's  heroic 
death  on  the  heights  of  Quebec,  was  the  price  of  the  conquest 
of  this  great  continent. 

The  campaign  of  1756  opened  with  the  best  prospects  for 
the  French.  They  were  supreme  in  the  Ohio  valley,  and 
throughout  the  Great  West.  They  held  three  forts  on  Lake 
Ontario, —  Frontenac,  Niagara,  and  Toronto;  the  only  rival 
to  their  undisputed  control  of  its  waters,  being  the  British  fort 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Oswego,  which  was  destined  shortly  to  fall 
into  their  hands.  Their  flag  floated  defiantly  at  Crown  Point 
and  Ticonderoga,  which  commanded  the  gateway  of  Canada, 
by  way  of  Lake  Champlain. 


CAMPAIGNS   OF  1756  AND  1757.  211 

The  French  military  officers,  too,  were  far  superior  in  dash 
and  daring  to  their  opponents.  Montcalm,  the  commander-m- 
chief,  who  arrived  at  Quebec  early  in  the  spring,  had  acquired 
experience  and  skill  in  Italy  and  Germany,  and  was  audacious 
in  battle  even  to  the  verge  Of  rashness.  De  Levi  and  St.  Veran, 
his  colleagues,  were  also  able  officers.  The  military  strength 
of  the  French,  however,  Avas  far  inferior  to  that  of  the  British. 
The  number  of  regulars  Avas  increased  to  about  four  thousand, 
but  the  total  available  colonial  forces  amounted  to  only  twice 
that  number.  The  whole  French  population  was  scarcely 
eighty  thousand,  and  it  was  ground  down  by  feudal  exactions, 
knavish  commercial  monopolies,  and  fraudulent  public  servants. 
The  crops  of  the  previous  year,  moreover,  had  been  a  failure, 
and  the  impoverished  people  were  often  in  Avant  of  food,  the 
scarcity  of  which  was  still  further  increased,  by  the  demand  for 
supplies  for  the  military,  and  for  the  starving  Acadian  exiles. 

The  British  colonies,  on  the  other  hand,  numbered  three 
millions  of  inhabitants.  Fostered  by  freedom  and  intelligence, 
these  had  become  rich  and  prosperous.  Though  not  deficient 
in  valour,  they  possessed  less  of  the  military  instinct,  and  were 
more  addicted  to  peaceful  industry,  than  their  northern  neigh- 
bours. The  Earl  of  Loudon,  a  man  utterly  without  military 
genius,  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  British  forces 
and  Governor  of  Virginia.  He  was  preceded  by  General 
Abercrombie,  with  tAvo  veteran  regiments.  A  judicious  plan 
of  operations  was  devised  by  a  council  of  colonial  Governors, 
at  New  York.  It  comprehended  expeditions  against  forts 
Frederick,  Niagara,  Du  Quesne,  and  Quebec,  by  an  aggregate 
force  of  twenty-five  thousand  colonial  militia  and  royal  troops. 
The  House  of  Commons  had  voted  £115,000  to  aid  the  colonies 
in  their  operations.  But  delay  and  indecision  frustrated  these 
purposes,  while  promptness  and  vigour  characterized  the  oper- 
ations of  the  French. 

The  British  fort  at  Oswego  had  been  the  object  of  an  attack 
by  Dieskau  the  previous  year,  Avhen  he  turned  aside  to  succour 
Crown  Point,  threatened  by  Johnson,  and  by  the  side  of  the 
beautiful  Lake  George,  met  his  early  fate.     In  order  to  keep 


212  HISTORY   OF  CANADA. 

up  communications  with  Lake  Ontario,  the  British  had  estab- 
lished a  chain  of  forest  forts,  extending  from  Schenectady  to 
Oswego.  Early  in  the  spring,  Vaudrueil  dispatched  a  force 
of  three  hundred  and  fifty  French  and  eighty  Indians,  to  de- 
stroy these  forts.  One  of  them,  Fort  Bull,  was  taken,  and  a 
large  quantity  of  military  munitions  destro3^ed. 

Meanwhile,  Abercrombie,  deeming  the  strength  of  his  com- 
mand insufficient  for  an  attack  on  Crown  Point,  was  loitering 
away  the  weeks  at  Albany,  waiting  for  re-enforcements.  In 
the  month  of  June,  Lieutenant-Colonel  Bradstreet,  with  a  force 
of  Irish  recruits,  guarded  up  the  Mohawk  and  down  the  Oswego 
rivers  a  large  convoy  of  provisions  and  stores, —  suflScient  for  a 
garrison  of  five  thousand  men  for  six  months, —  and  success- 
fully conveyed  them  to  Fort  Oswego.  On  his  return,  he  was 
intercepted  by  Captain  de  Villiers,  with  a  body  of  seven  hun- 
dred men,  French  and  Indians,  from  Fort  Frontenac.  Fearing 
an  attack,  Bradstreet  had  divided  his  force  into  three  divisions, 
and  was  ascending  the  Oswego  with  the  first,  when  he  w^as 
assailed  by  far  superior  numbers.  He  bravely  held  his  own 
against  tremendous  odds,  till  he  was  supported  by  the  second 
and  third  divisions.  A  desperate  conflict  then  ensued,  in  which 
the  French  were  completely  routed,  a  hundred  of  their  number 
slain  and  seventy  captured.  Bradstreet,  however,  lost  sixty  of 
Ms  stout-hearted  Irish  recruits.  He  hastened  to  Albany,  and 
conveyed  to  Abercrombie  the  startling  intelligence,  that  Oswego 
was  threatened  by  a  large  French  force.  Still  no  efficient 
efforts  were  made  for  the  relief  of  the  menaced  fortress ; 
although  Abercrombie  had  ten  or  twelve  thousand  colonial  and 
British  soldiers  at  his  disposal. 

Meanwhile,  Montcalm,  by  his  eager  enei*gy,  was  infusing 
new  vigour  into  the  military  operations  of  the  French.  Travel- 
ling night  and  day,  he  hastened  from  Quebec  to  Fort  Carillon, 
at  Ticonderoga.  He  took  active  measures  for  improving  its 
defences,  and  left  M.  de  Levi  in  command,  with  three  thousand 
men,  half  of  whom  were  regulars.  With  characteristic  energy, 
he  next  resolved  on  the  capture  of  Oswego.  He  collected  a 
force  of  three  thousand  regulars,  Canadian  militia,  and  Indians 


CAMPAIGNS   OF  1756  AND  1757.  213 

at  Fort  Fi'ontenac.  Moving  only  by  night,  and  hiding  their 
batteaiix  beneath  heaps  of  brush-wood  by  day,  the  expedition 
reachcti  Fort  Oswego  by  the  10th  of  August,  while  Montcalm 
was  thought  to  be  still  at  Carillon. 

The  main  fort  was  a  large  stone  structure,  mounting  thirty 
guns  and  howitzers.  For  its  support.  Fort  Ontario,  a  much 
smaller  construction,  had  been  created  on  the  opposite  and  left 
bank  of  the  river.  The  whole  was  garrisoned  by  seventeen 
hundred  men,  under  Colonel  Mercer.  Montcalm  opened  his 
trenches  within  two  hundred  yards  of  Fort  Ontario,  during  the 
night  of  August  12th,  and  next  day  kept  up  a  brisk  fire.  In 
the  evening  the  garrison  of  Fort  Ontario,  having  exhausted 
their  ammunition,  spiked  their  guns  and  retreated  to  the  main 
fort,  across  the  river.  Montcalm  promptly  occupied  the  aban- 
doned fort,  and  turned  its  guns  on  Fort  Oswego,  which  it  was 
constructed  to  protect.  Colonel  Mercer  was  soon  killed,  and 
the  garrison,  despairing  of  receiving  re-enforcements  from 
General  Webb,  who,  with  a  force  of  two  thousand  men,  was 
posted  at  no  great  distance,  raised  the  white  flag  of  surrender. 
A  hundred  and  fifty  English  were  killed  or  wounded  during 
the  brief  siege,  besides  thirty  massacred  by  the  Indians  after 
the  capitulation.  The  loss  of  the  French  was  less  than  half 
as  great.  The  booty  was  immense,  comprising  seven  armed 
vessels,  two  hundred  batteaux,  one  hundred  and  seven  cannon, 
a  vast  quantity  of  stores,  and  a  large  sum  of  money.  These 
were  all  dispatched  to  Montreal,  together  with  sixteen  hundred 
prisoners,  and  to  allay  the  jealousy  of  the  Iroquois,  as  well  as 
fi-om  inability  to  garrison  it,  the  fort  was  razed  to  the  ground. 

General  Webb  hastily  retreated,  felling  trees  to  obstruct 
pursuit,  and  conveyed  the  disastrous  intelligence  to  Albany. 
Montcalm's  victory  was  stained  by  the  atrocities  of  his  savage 
allies,  who  even  scalped  the  sick  in  the  hospital  of  the  fort, 
although  he  used  his  utmost  efforts  to  put  a  stop  to  the  mas- 
sacre. The  success  of  the  French  arms  confirmed  the  growing 
reputation  of  Montcalm,  and  created  great  joy  throughout 
Canada.  It  seems,  at  the  same  time,  to  have  paralyzed  the 
activity  of  the  British.     The  French  were  allowed  to  construct 


214  HISTORY  OF  CAXADA. 

strong  fortifications  at  TiconcTeroga,  and  the  British  forces,  which 
might  have  penetrated  to  the  heart  of  Canada,  were  sent  into 
winter  charters, —  the  colonial  militia  to  their  homes,  while  the 
regulars  were  billeted  on  the  inhabitants  of  Albany  and  New 
York,  much  to  the  disgust  of  their  hosts.  Of  the  projected 
attacks  on  Crown  Point,  Niagara,  Fort  Du  Quesne  and  Quebec, 
not  one  was  carried  into  execution.  "With  the  exception  of 
Bradstreet's  gallant  exploit  at  the  beginning  of  the  season,  the 
record  of  the  campaign  had  been  one  of  disaster  and  defeat. 

During  the  winter,  a  force  of  fifteen  hundred  French  and 
Indians  advanced,  on  snow-shoes,  camping  at  night  amid  the 
snow,  from  Montreal,  to  attempt  the  capture  of  Fort  William 
Henry,  at  the  southern  end  of  Lake  George,  a  distance  of 
nearlj'  two  hundred  miles.  Unable  to  surprise  the  fort,  they 
burned  all  the  outworks,  together  with  the  adjacent  mills,  four 
armed  brigantines,  three  hundred  and  fifty  batteaux,  and  im- 
mense stores  of  provisions  and  war  materiel^  and  carried  con- 
sternation even  within  Abercrombie's  entrenchments  at  Albany. 
Marauding  parties  of  French  and  Indians  ravaged  the  English 
frontier  with  fire  and  sword,  swooping  down  on  lonely  settle- 
ments, in  midnight  attacks,  and  murdering  and  scalping  the 
inhabitants,  without  distinction  of  age  or  sex. 

The  harvest  of  the  half-tilled  acres  of  Canada  had  been  a 
comparafive  failure,  and  a  great  dearth  of  provisions  prevailed. 
The  presence  of  several  hundreds  of  famishing  Acadian  refugees 
made  matters  still  worse.  They  implored  the  privilege  of 
fighting  for  the  King,  but  the  number  of  combatants  was 
already  greater  than  there  was  food  to  maintain.  But  for  the 
provisions  captured  at  Oswego,  it  would  have  been  impossible 
to  re-victual  the  forts  at  Frontcuac,  Niagara,  and  on  the  Ohio. 
Still,  the  rapacity  of  Bigot,  the  Intendant,  and  his  minions  of 
the  Grand  Company,  was  unrestrained.  Provisions  and  stores, 
sent  from  France  for  the  succour  of  the  starving  colonists,  were 
sold  at  famine  prices,  and  the  enormous  profits  passed  into  the 
hands  of  this  gang  of  thieves.  The  allowance  of  bread,  at 
Quebec,  was  reduced  to  four  ounces  a  day.  The  ravages  of 
small-pox  were  also  added  to  those  of  famine. 


CAMPAIGNS   OF  1756  AND  1757.  215 

The  following  year,  1757,  Lord  Loudon  resolved  to  make 
Louisburg  the  chief  point  of  attack.  In  July,  he  assembled 
at  Halifax,  a  fleet  of  twenty  ships  of  the  line,  carrying  over 
twelve  hundred  cannon,  and  ninety  transports,  with  cloven 
thousand  soldiers,  chiefly  veteran  troops.  Here  he  wasted  a 
month  in  mock  battles  and  sieges.  Learning  that  Louisburg 
was  garrisoned  by  ten  thousand  men,  and  guarded  by  a  fleet  as 
strong  as  his  own,  he  abandoned  his  design.  One  of  his  vessels 
was  wrecked  on  the  rocky  coast  of  Cape  Breton,  and  half  of 
her  crew  perished  in  the  waves.  Eleven  ships  were  dismasted, 
and  obliged  to  throw  their  cannon  into  the  sea.  The  remainder 
of  the  fleet,  in  a  shattered  condition,  with  difficulty  made  its 
way  to  England, 

Meanwhile,  the  indefatigable  Montcalm  took  advantage  of 
the  diversion  of  attention  toward  Louisburg,  to  strike  a  fatal 
blow  at  Fort  William  Henry,  on  Lake  George.  In  July,  he 
assembled  at  Ticonderoga,  a  force  of  six  thousand  regulars 
and  militia,  and  sixteen  hundred  savages  of  thirty  diflerent 
tribes.  Early  in  August,  the  fort,  now  garrisoned  by  twenty- 
seven  hundred  men,  under  Colonel  Munroe,  was  invested  by 
the  French,  whose  main  body  advanced,  on  a  stormy  night, 
down  Lake  George  in  two  hundred  and  fifty  batteaux,  the  rest 
of  his  force  having  proceeded  by  land.  For  five  days,  a  fierce 
bombardment  woke  the  wild  echoes  of  the  mountains,  and  by 
niglit  illumined  the  engirdling  forest  and  placid  lake,  Avhile 
'hundreds  of  yelling  savages  scoured  the  woods,  cutting  off  and 
scalping  all  stragglers.  At  Fort  Edward,  within  fifteen  miles, 
lay  the  craven  General  Webb,-  with  four  thousand  troops  ;  but 
instead  of  endeavouring  to  relieve  the  besieged,  he  sent  an 
exaggerated  account  of  the  number  of  the  French,  and  a 
recommendation  to  surrender.  "  I  shall  defend  my  trust  to 
the  last  extremity,"  exclaimed  the  gallant  Munroe,  and,  spurn- 
ing the  coward  counsel,  he  held  out  till  half  his  guns  were  burst 
and  his  ammunition  was  nearly  exhausted,  and  over  three 
hundred  and  fifty  men  were  killed  and  wounded,  before  he 
surrendered. 

On  the  9th  of  August,  a   capitulation  was   signed,  which 


216  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

allowed  the  British  to  march  out  with  the  honours  of  war, 
with  flying  colours  and  beating  drums,  and  guaranteed  an 
escort  to  Fort  Edward.  The  English  engaged  not  to  serve 
against  the  French  for  eighteen  months.  On  the  surrender,  a 
tragedy  ensued  which  stained  with  the  blood  of  its  victims  the 
laurels  of  the  victors.  As  the  garrison,  with  its  camp-following 
of  women  and  children,  was  defiling  through  the  woods,  the 
blood-thirsty  savages,  balked  of  their  anticipated  harvest  of 
scalps  and  plunder,  and  maddened  by  liquor,  which  the  British 
had  neglected  to  destroy,  fell  in  ruthless  massacre  upon  the 
panic-stricken  throng.  The  scanty  escort  in  vain  endeavoured 
to  restrain  the  frenzied  wretches  in  their  work  of  slaughter. 
Montcalm  threw  himself  between  the  savages  and  their  victims. 
"Kill  me,"  he  exclaimed,  *'but  spare  the  English;  they  are 
under  my  protection."  De  Levi  and  other  officers  interposed, 
with  daring  and  devotion,  to  stop  the  massacre,  and  to  rescue 
the  prisoners  from  their  savage  allies ;  and  several  of  them 
received  serious  injuries  from  the  Indians,  while  protecting  the 
English  from  their  rage.  Six  hundred  wretched  fugitives 
escaped  through  the  woods  to  Fort  Edward.  The  French  sent 
thither,  under  a  strong  escort,  four  hundred  prisoners  whom, 
not  without  personal  danger,  they  had  rescued.  They  after- 
wards ransomed  two  hundred  others,  who  had  been  carried  cap- 
tives to  Montreal.  The  remaining  twelve  hundred,  there  is 
reason  to  fear,  were  massacred  or  enslaved  by  the  Indians. 
Montcalm  disavowed  all  responsibility  for  the  act ;  but  the  inhu- 
man practice  of  engaging  lawless  savages  as  allies  in  the  wars 
of  civilized  men,  was  the  fatal  cause  of  this  and  other  like 
atrocities. 

Montcalm  razed  Fort  William  Henry  to  the  ground,  and, 
deterred  from  a  further  advance  by  short  allowance  of  food, 
the  French  returned  to  reap  the  scanty  harvest  of  their  Cana- 
dian fields.  Naught  remained  to  mark  human  habitation  on 
the  shores  of  the  lonely  lake,  save  the  charred  ruins  of  the 
fort,  and  the  graves  of  the  dead  on  the  hillside. 

The  fall  of  Fort  AYilliam  Henry  created  dismay  in  the  English 
camp  at  Albany,  and  at  Fort  Edward.     At  the  latter  place,  the 


CAMPAiayS  OF  1756  AXD  1757.  217 

craven-hcartcd  Webb,  with  five  thousand  men,  was  in  daily 
expectation  of  attack,  and  was  eager  to  retreat  to  the  fost- 
ncsses  of  the  highlands  on  the  Hudson.  "Exert  yourself  to 
savo  a  province,"  Captain  Christie,  the  ofiicer  commanding  at 
Albany,  adjured  Governor  Pownall  of  Massachusetts;  "New 
York  itself  may  fall."  The  following  day,  he  wrote  still  more 
importunately:  "Save  the  country.  Prevent  the  downfall  of 
the  British  Government  upon  this  continent." 

A  storm  of  indignation  was  excited  in  England  at  the  dis- 
astrous results  of  the  campaign,  from  which  so  much  had  been 
expected.  Not  less  than  twenty  thousand  troops  had  wasted 
the  season  of  the  year,  during  which  alone  action  was  possible, 
in  disembarkations,  parades,  sham-fights,  and  retreats,  and  had 
lost  possession  of  a  fort,  constructed  and  filled  with  stores  at 
immense  cost.  Twenty  magnificent  shii)s  of  the  line  had  sailed 
proudl}'  forth  from  British  harbours,  and  without  firing  a  gun 
for  the  honour  of  Old  England,  had  been  compelled  to  return, 
shattered  and  maimed,  to  the  ports  whence  they  came.  The 
loss  of  ships,  of  treasure,  of  lives,  of  glory,  precipitated  the 
fall  of  the  incompetent  Newcastle  ministry,  and  led  to  the  res- 
toration to  power  of  "William  Pitt,  —  the  only  man  who  seemed 
capable  of  raising  England  from  the  abyss  of  disaster,  if  not 
of  degradation,  into  which  she  had  sunk. 

Notwithstanding  the  successes  of  the  French  in  the  last  two 
campaigns,  the  condition  of  Canada  was  one  of  extreme  exhaus- 
tion. During  the  weary  months  of  winter,  a  severe  famine 
prevailed.  The  cultivation  of  the  fields  had  been  itss. 
abandoned  to  women  and  children,  every  able-bodied  man 
being  enrolled  in  the  army.  The  meagre  crops  that  had  been 
sown  were  almost  a  total  failure.  In  many  parishes,  scarce 
enough  grain  was  reaped  to  supply  seed  for  the  next  sowing. 
The  soldiers  and  citizens  were  put  upon  shoii  allowance  of 
horse-flesh  and  bread.  The  daily  rations  were  continuously 
reduced  till,  in  April,  the  allowance  of  bread  was  only  two 
ounces.  Men  fell  down  from  faintness  in  the  streets  of  Quebec. 
Three  hundred  Acadian  refugees  perished  of  hunger. 

Dm-ing  this  period  of  general  distress,  Bigot,  the  Intendant, 


218  BISTORT  OF  C AX  AD  A. 

and  his  i^artners  in  crime  and  extortion, —  Cadet,  Yarin,  De 
Pean  and  others, —  battened  like  vampires  upon  the  life-blood 
of  their  unhappy  country.  Bigot,  the  chief  criminal,  was  mean 
in  stature,  repulsive  in  countenance,  odious  in  life.  His 
rapacity  was  almost  incredible.  He  seized,  in  the  Iving's  name, 
all  the  grain,  cattle,  and  horses  on  which  his  minions  could  lay 
hands,  and  resold  them,  through  his  agents,  at  a  tenfold 
increase  in  price.  He  actually,  in  this  time  of  famine,  ex- 
23orted  large  quantities  of  breadstufis  to  the  West  Indies,  and 
made  enormous  profits  from  the  enhanced  cost  of  food  at  home. 
He,  with  his  creatures,  monopolized  the  commerce  of  the  colony 
and  the  army  contracts  ;  defrauding  both  the  King,  the  people, 
and  the  soldiers,  by  false  entries,  exorbitant  charges,  wholesale 
embezzlement,  wretched  supplies,  and  the  most  flagrant  bribery, 
corruption,  extortion,  and  robbery.  He  destroyed  the  financial 
credit  of  the  colony,  by  the  lavish  issue  of  paper  money,  under 
his  own  signature,  made  payable  at  the  Royal  Treasury  of 
France,  which  soon  became  utterly  worthless.  While  the 
country  languished,  this  gang  of  thieves  amassed  princely 
fortunes.  Their  houses  were  the  scenes  of  the  most  unblushing 
profligacy,  gambling,  and  licentious  riot  and  excess.  "  It  would 
seem,"  wrote  Montcalm,  "  that  all  are  in  haste  to  be  rich  before 
the  colony  is  altogether  lost  to  France."  They  seemed  even 
desirous  to  precipitate  that  loss,  in  order  that  they  might  cover 
their  own  misdeeds. 

The  mother  country  was  herself  exhausted  by  the  exactions 
of  a  world-wide  war,  and  her  civil  and  military  administration 
was  corrupted  and  enfeebled  by  the  profligacy  of  the  court. 
She  could  send  few  re-enforcements  of  men  or  money,  military 
stores  or  food,  to  the  colony;  and  most  of  the  victualling  ships 
sent  out  in  the  sjjriug  of  1758  were  cai^tui-ed  by  the  British. 


CAMPAIGXS   OF  1758  AXD  1759.  219 


CILVPTER  XVn. 

THE   CAMPAIGNS  OF   1758  AND   1759. 

Pitt,  Prime  Minister  of  Eugland  —  Fall  of  Lonisljurg  —  Abercrombie's  Defeat 
at  Ticonderoga  —  Bradstreet  Captures  Fort  Froutenac  —  Fort  Du  Qnesiie 
Eeduced  —  Re-named  Fort  Pitt  —  Hax)les3  Condition  of  Canada  —  The  Toils 
of  Fate  Closing  —  British  Victories  around  the  World  —  The  Hero  of  Louis- 
bnrg  —  Fall  of  Fort  Niagara  —  Amherst  Eeduces  Ticonderoga  —  Exploit  and 
Sufferings  of  Major  Eogers. 

THE  disasters  of  the  English  only  served  to  arouse  their 
intenser  energy  and  fiiiner  determination.  The  unfor- 
tunate Nevrcastle  ministry  resigned,  and  "William  Pitt,  for  a 
time  excluded  from  the  Cabinet,  by  the  unanimous  voice  of  the 
country  was  summoned  to  the  chief  place  in  the  great  Council 
of  the  nation.  In  a  venal  age,  he  had  proved  himself  an  incor- 
ruptible statesman.  He  had  no  private  ends  to  serve,  and 
sought  only  the  glory  of  England,  and  the  humbling  of  her 
enemies.  "I  am  sure  that  I  can  save  the  country,"  he  ex- 
claimed, to  the  Duke  of  Devonshire,  "audi  am  certain  that 
no  one  else  can  do  it."  His  lofty  courage,  noble  patriotism, 
and  honest  administration  were  the  guaran- 
tee of  success.  Ho  resolved  on  the  abso- 
lute conquest  of  Canada,  even  at  the  cost 
of  England's  "last  shilling  and  last  man." 
He  had  a  difficult  task  before  him.  "  The 
French  are  masters  to  do  what  they  please  r". " 
in  America,"  wrote  Lord  Chesterfield;  ,  " 
"we  are  no  longer  a  nation ;  I  never  yet  ''^ 
saw  so  dreadful  a  prospect."  Yet  Pitt  william  pitt. 
raised  England  from  this  Slough  of  Despond,  to  the  pinnacle 
of  glory.  He  infused  his  own  energy  into  every  branch  of  the 
public  service.  On  the  plains  of  Plassey,  in  the  trenches  of 
Louisburg,  on  the  heights  of  Abraham,  his  influence  was  felt. 
From  the  admiral  of  the  fleet,  to  the  sailor  before  the  mast ; 


220  .  BISTORT  OF  CANADA. 

from  the  general  of  the  aniiy,  to  the  private  soldier,  every  one 
caught  the  inspiration  of  his  intrepid  spirit. 

Pitt  selected  his  agents,  not  by  the  principles  of  favouritism, 
but  for  their  .ability  to  do  the  work  required  of  them.  Lord 
Loudon  was  therefore  recalled,  notwithstanding  his  elevated 
rank.  Colonel  Amherst,  an  officer  of  energy  and  prudence,  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  major-general,  and  received  command  of 
the  projected  expedition  against  Louisburg.  Under  him  were 
"Whitmore,  Lawrence,  and  Wolfe,  as  brigadier-generals,— 
officers  whose  brilliant  career  amply  vindicated  their  selection. 
To  the  Hon.  Edward  Boscawen  was  given  the  command  of  the 
fleet. 

Lord  Abercrombie,  who  was  personally  unknown  to  Pitt, 
was  left  in  command  of  the  army  destined  to  attack  Crown 
Point ;  with  the  brave  but  ill-fated  Lord  Howe  as  his  second 
in  authority.  Expeditions  against  forts  Du  Quesne,  Niagara, 
and  Fronteriac  were  organized,  and  assigned  to  able  officers. 
The  supreme  attack  was  to  be  made  upon  the  heart  of  Canada, 
at  Quebec  and  IMontreal.  The  military  forces  were  increased 
to  fifty  thousand  men,  twenty  thousand  of  whom  were  British 
regulars.  The  French  girded  themselves  for  what  they  felt  to 
be  the  death-wrestle.  "  We  will  bury  ourselves,  if  need  be," 
wrote  IMontcalm,  *'  beneath  the  ruins  of  the  colony." 

The  first  blow  was  struck  at  Louisburg.  Its  fortress  had 
fallen  greatly  into  decay  since  the  siege  of  1742 ;  but  it  was 
garrisoned  by  three  thousand  five  hundred  men,  and  supported 
by  ten  ships  of  war.  Early  in  June,  Admiral  Boscawen,  with 
thirty-seven  ships  of  war,  and  one  hundred  and  twenty  trans- 
ports, conveying  twelve  thousand  troops,  arrived  at  daybreak 
off  Louisburg.  Amherst  had  intended,  if  possible,  to  surprise 
the  fort,  and  had  issued  orders  for  the  concealment  of  all  lights 
on  shipboard,  and  for  the  observance  of  perfect  silence  during 
the  landing.  For  six  days,  however,  a  rough  sea,  dashing  m 
heavy  breakers  on  the  iron  coast,  prevented  debarkation ;  the 
T^rench,  meanwhile,  actively  throwing  up  earthworks  all  along 
the  shore.  Early  on  the  seventh  day,  Wolfe,  with  a  strong 
force,  gallantly  landed  through  the  surf.     The  French  swarmed 


CAMPAIGXS   OF  1758  AND  1759.  221 

on  the  shore,  and  i:)oiired  u  heavy  fire  into  the  boats.  Still,  not 
a  shot  was  returned,  till,  struggling  to  the  land,  the  soldiers 
gave  a  hearty  British  cheer,  and  promptly  dislodged  the  enemy 
from  their  earthworks,  and  drove  them  flying  over  the  plain. 
A  hundred  boats  had  been  swamped  or  wrecked  in  the  debarka- 
tion, with  the  loss  of  several  lives  ;  and  for  two  days  the  fury 
of  the  waves  prevented  the  landing  of  siege  guns,  tents,  and 
necessary  stores. 

The  siege  was  vigorously  pressed  by  day  and  night,  for  seven 
weeks.  The  resistance  was  brave  but  ineffectual .  Several 
sorties  were  made,  not  without  serious  damage  to  the  besiegers. 
Madame  Drucourt,  the  wife  of  the  Governor,  encouraged  the 
garrison  by  her  heroism.  During  the  bombardment,  she  often 
appeared  among  the  soldiers  on  the  ramparts,  and  even  fired 
the  great  guns,  and  encouraged  with  rewards  the  most  expert 
artillery-men.  With  her  own  hands,  she  dressed  the  wounds 
of  the  injured,  and,  by  the  exhibition  of  her  own  courage, 
enbraved  the  hearts  of  the  defenders  of  the  fort.  Every  effort, 
however,  w\as  in  vain.  The  walls  crumbled  rapidly  under  the 
heavy  fire  of  the  besiegers. 

Several  vessels  had  been  sunk  at  the  harbour's  mouth,  to 
prevent  the  entrance  of  the  British.  A  live  shell  set  fire  to  a 
French  seventy-four  gun  ship  in  the  harbour.  Its  magazine 
exploded  and  set  fire  to  two  other  ships.  Two  young  ofiicers. 
Captains  La  Torey  and  Balfour,  rowed  into  the  harbour  on  a 
dark  night,  with  the  boats  of  the  fleet,  cut  out  one  of  the 
remaining  vessels,  and  burnt  the  other.  Three  gaping  breaches 
now  yawned  in  the  walls.  The  British  batteries  were  pushed 
up  to  the  rampart's.  Four-fifths  of  the  guns  were  dismounted. 
The  town  and  fortress  were  well-nigh  demolished  by  shot  and 
shell.  The  French  fleet  was  destroyed,  and  the  ofiing  was 
white  with  the  blockading  British  squadron.  Valour  could  do 
no  more,  and  on  the  26th  of  July,  Drucourt  capitulated. 

Fifteen  thousand  stand  of  arms,  two  hundred  and  forty  pieces 
of  ordnance,  and  immense  quantities  of  stores,  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  British.  Eleven  stand  of  colours,  as  trophies  of 
the  conquest,  were  presented  to  the  sovereign,  and  then  solemnly 


222  BISTORT  OF  CANADA. 

deposited  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral.  The  inhabitants  of  Louis- 
burg  vrere  conveyed  to  France,  and  the  garrison  and  sailors, 
over  five  thousand  in  number,  were  sent  prisoners  to  England. 
The  fortress,  constructed  at  such  cost,  and  assailed  and  defended 
with  such  valour,  soon  fell  into  utter  ruin.  "Where  giant  navies 
rode,  and  earth-shaking  war  achieved  such  vast  exploits,  to-day 
the  peaceful  waters  of  the  placid  bay  kiss  the  deserted  strand,' 
and  a  small  fishing  hamlet  and  a  few  mouldering  ruin-mounds! 
mark  the  grave  of  so  much  military  pomp,  and  power,  and 
glory. 

After  the  reduction  of  Louisburg,  Wolfe  was  despatched  upon 
the  uncongenial  task  of  destroying  the  French  settlements  at 
Mramichi,  the  Bay  of  Chaleurs,  Gasp6,  and  the  lower  St. 
Lawrence.  This  stern  military  necessity,  as  it  was  conceived 
to  be,  was  promj^tly  executed.  All  the  Acadian  villages  were 
laid  in  ruins,  and  hundreds  of  their  inhabitants  were  made 
prisoners,  or  driven  from  their  devastated  homes,  to  find  refuge 
in  the  wilderness.  The  intendant  of  Mont  Louis,  a  flourishing 
fishing  station,  offered  a  ransom  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  thou- 
sand livres,  if  the  village  and  the  property  of  the  inhabitants 
should  be  spared  ;  but  a  stern  retaliation  for  ravages  on  English' 
territory,  and  the  resolve  to  prevent,  as  far  as  possible,  the 
revictualling  of  Quebec,  consigned  immense  stores  of  grain 
and  fish  to  the  flames.  Similar  destruction  of  public  and 
private  property,  took  place  on  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  and  on  the 
Eivcr  St.  John.  It  is  one  of  the  terrible  retributions  of  war,  • 
that  even  the  chivalric  nature  of  Wolfe  was  unable  to  divest  of 
its  harshness  a  movement  by  Avhich  so  many  innocent  persons 
were  made  to  sufler  for  their  fidelity  to  their  country,  and  their 
riffhtful  soverei2:n. 

The  victory  of  Louisburg  was  soon  followed  by  a  terrible 
defeat.  In  the  month  of  June,  the  largest  army  ever  yet  seen 
on  the  American  continent,  was  assembled  at  Albany,  under 
the  command  of  Lord  Abercrombie.  It  was  composed  of  a 
strong  force  of  royal  artillery,  six  thousand  three  hundred  and 
fifty  regular  troops,  and  nine  thousand  jirovincial  militia.  The 
object  of  the  expedition  was  the  destruction  of  Ticondcroga 


CAMPAIGNS    OF  1758  AND  1759.  223 

and  Crown  Point.  The  formidable  force  reached  Lake  George 
without  misadventure,  and  encamped  on  the  ground  still  en- 
cumbered by  the  blackened  ruins  of  Fort  William  Henry. 

On  a  brilliant  July  morning,  the  fifth  day 
of  the  month,  the  whole  force  embarked 
in  over  a  thousand  barges  and  batteaux, 
and  in  bannered  pomp  and  splendour,  with 
blare  of  music,  flash  of  oars,  and  gleam  of 
arms,  sailed  down  the  lovely  lake,  accom-  ^ 
panied  by  a  number  of  rafts,  armed  with  //i\^ 
artillery,  designed  to  overcome  any  oppo-  '^ 
sition  to  their  landing.  As  night  fell,  the 
ai-my  debarked  and  encamped  for  a  few  gexeral  abercrombie. 
hours,  amid  the  picturesque  loveliness  of  Sabbath-day  Point. 
At  midnight  they  hastily  re-embarked,  leaving  the  bivouac  fires 
brightly  burning,  in  order  to  deceive  the  watchful  scouts  of  the 
enemy.  At  five  o'clock  in  the  morning,  they  reached  the  nar- 
rows, where  Ticonderoga,  or  Carillon,  as  the  French  called  it, 
guarded  the  entrance  to  the  river,  leading  to  Lake  Champlain. 

The  British  advance-guard,  of  two  thousand  men,  under 
General  Bradstreet,  landed  without  opposition,  and  the  whole 
army  soon  followed ;  and  began  to  advance  in  four  columns. 
"  These  people  march  carefully,"  said  IMontcalm,  who  was  soon 
informed  of  their  movement ;  ' '  but  if  they  give  me  time  to 
occupy  the  position  I  have  chosen,  on  the  heights  of  Carillon,  I 
will  beat  them."  The  British  columns  soon  became  entamrled 
in  the  forest,  and  suddenly  the  right  wing,  under  Lord  Howe, 
came  upon  a  detachment  of  three  hundred  French,  who  had 
also  lost  their  way.  A  sharp  skirmish  ensued,  in  which  the 
French  were  nearly  all  captured  or  killed,  but  almost  at  the 
first  fire,  the  young  and  gallant  Lord  Howe,  the  favourite  of 
the  army,  fell  at  the  head  of  his  column.  All  energy  and 
spirit  seemed  to  j^ass  away  from  the  expedition,  with  his  death. 
He  had  judiciously  trained  his  troops  in  the  tactics  iiccessaiy 
for  the  rugged  service  of  forest  warfare,  and  had  cheerfully 
endured  the  same  privations  and  fatigue  that  were  encountered 
by  the  private  soldiers. 


224  HISTORY  OF  C AX  ABA. 

That  night  the  army  bivouacked  upon  the  scene  of  the  conflict, 
and  the  next  day  Al)ercrombie,  who  seems  to  have  completely 
lost  his  head,  ordered  a  retreat  to  the  point  of  embarkation. 
Bradstreet,  however,  with  a  strong  force,  was  sent  forward  to 
occupy  a  position  at  some  saw-mills,  within  two  miles  of  Mont- 
calm's lines,  where  he  was  joined  by  the  bulk  of  the  army. 
Montcalm,  who  had  with  him  nearly  four  thousand  of  his  best 
troops,  had  strengthened  a  naturally  formidable  position  by  an 
earthwork,  half  a  mile  in  front  of  the  fort,  before  which,  for  a 
hundred  yards,  sloped  a  steep  glacis,  covered  with  an  impen- 
etrable abattis  of  felled  trees,  the  sharpened  stakes  pointing 
outward.  Both  ends  of  this  line  could  have  been  turned  with 
slight  difficulty,  as  Montcalm  had  been  unable  to  complete  his 
design  of  covering  his  flanks  by  entrenchments.  This  fact, 
however,  was  not  discovered  till  too  late. 

Early  on  the  morning  of  the  8th  of  June,  Abercrombie 
reconnoitred  this  position,  and  fearing  the  re-enforcement  of 
the  enemy,  rashly  resolved  on  an  attack  in  column,  without 
waiting  for  cannon.  The  assault  was  gallantly  made.  For 
nearly  six  hours,  under  a  burning  sun,  again  and  again  the 
columns  were  hurled  against  the  terrible  abattis,  and  as  often 
staggered  and  recoiled,  before  a  withering  point-blank  fire  of 
cannon  and  musketry.  The  brave  Highlanders  especially, — 
lithe,  active,  and  lightly  clad, —  hacked  their  way  through  with 
their  claymores,  or  clambered  over  the  abattis,  and  many  of 
them  died  on  the  very  ramparts  of  Montcalm's  entrenchments. 
That  gallant  officer,  by  reckless  daring  and  personal  exposure, 
animated  his  men,  while  the  British  general  issued  his  ill-judged 
commands,  leading  only  to  disaster  and  defeat,  from  a  safe 
distance  in  the  rear.  Upon  a  rude  barrier,  which  the  artillery, 
close  at  hand,  could  have  swept  away  in  an  hour,  the  flower  of 
the  British  troops  were  sacrificed,  through  the  incompetence, 
obstinacy,  and  presumption  of  their  general.  Baffled  and 
broken,  with  the  loss  of  two  thousand  men,  the  more  than 
decimated  army  retreated  jDanic-stricken  to  their  batteaux,  and 
speedily  placed  the  length  of  the  lake  between  them  and  the 
victorious  enemy.     Abercrombie,  bitterly  chagrined,  threw_up 


CAMrAIGXS   OF  1753  AXD  1759.  225 

an  entrenched  camp  on  the  site  of  Fort  William  Henry,  and  sent 
liis  artillery  to  Albany,  and  thence  to  Xew  York,  for  safety. 
The  loss  of  the  French  was  three  hundred  and  seventy-six 
killed  and  wounded.  ^lontcalm  modestly  wrote  to  Vaudrueil : 
"The  only  credit  I  can  claim,  is  the  glory  of  commanding 
such  valorous  troops.  The  success  of  the  affair  is  due  to  the 
incredible  bravery  of  both  officers  and  men."  Without  detract- 
ing from  the  valour  of  the  French,  who  fought  under  cover, 
although  against  great  odds,  we  think  that  of  the  British 
troops,  marching  unfalteringly  to  death,  against  that  terrible 
abattis,  and  under  an  iron  hail,  was  still  more  heroic. 

The  disgrace  of  this  disaster  was  partly  retrieved,  a  few 
weeks  later,  by  the  capture  of  Fort  Frontenac,  the  French 
naval  depot  at  the  foot  of  Lake  Ontario,  by  General  Bradstreet. 
"With  tAventy-eight  hundred  men  he  advanced,  by  way  of  the 
Mohawk  and  Oswego,  and  crossing  the  lake  in  open  boats, 
invested  the  fort,  which  was  guarded  by  only  one  hundred  and 
sixty  men.  After  two  days'  boral)ardmcnt  it  surrendered,  and 
was  burned  to  the  ground,  together  with  an  immense  quantity 
of  stores,  and  seven  armed  vessels.  Thus,  without  the  loss  of 
a  man,  was  destroyed  the  French  naval  supremacy  on  Lake 
Ontario.  The  loss  of  the  stores  seriously  crippled  the  opera- 
tions of  the  French,  by  preventing  the  replenishment  with 
supplies  of  the  Western  forts.  Vaudreuil  ungenerously  en- 
deavoured to  exculpate  himself  for  his  neglect  to  re-enforce 
Fort  Frontenac,  by  laying  the  blame  of  its  surrender  upon  De 
Noyau,  its  commandant. 

The  French,  meanwhile,  harassed  the  outposts  of  Aber- 
crombie's  anny,  and  cut  off  stragglers  and  convoys.  In  the 
month  of  July,  they  surprised  and  massacred,  near  Fort  Edward, 
two  bodies  of  provincials  and  wagoners,  numbering  over  a 
hundred  and  fifty  men.  INIajor  Rogers,  already  famous  in 
border  warfare,  was  dispatched  with  seven  hundred  men  to 
punish  tlio  marauders.  Ilis  force  was  soon  reduced  by  hard- 
ships and  desertions,  to  five  hundred,  when  he  encountered  a 
body  of  the  enemy,  of  about  equal  strength.  A  fierce  conflict 
ensued,  in  which  the  French  were  soundly  beaten,  leaving  a 
29 


226  BISTORT  OF  CANADA. 

hundred  and  ninety  men,  dead  or  wounded,  on  tlie  field.  The 
loss  to  the  British  amounted  to  forty  men. 

In  order  to  maintain  communication  with  Lake  Ontario,  by 
way  of  the  ISIohawk  River,  and  to  confirm  the  Iroquois  in  their 
allegiance,  Brigadier-General  Stanwix  vras  despatched,  with  a 
strong  force,  to  construct  a  fort  at  the  portage  between  the 
Mohawk  and  Oneida  Lake.  This  imjjortant,  but  unostentatious 
service,  he  successfully  accomplished,  and  the  ruins  of  the  fort 
which  he  built,  whose  site  is  noAV  occupied  by  the  town  of 
Eome,  still  bear  his  name. 

In  the  "West,  General  Forbes,  with  a  force  of  fifteen  hundred 
regulars,  and  five  thousand  provincial  militia,  advanced  against 
Fort  Du  Qucsne.  Stricken  with  mortal  illness,  he  was  borne, 
a  dying  man,  across  the  Alleghanies  in  a  litter.  When  he  had 
arrived  within  ninety  miles  of  Du  Quesne,  Forbes  dispatched 
Colonel  Bouquet,  with  two  thousand  men,  to  take  post  at  Ro^'al 
Hanna,  while  the  main  army  labouriously  constructed  a  new 
road  through  the  wilderness,  avoiding  the  ill-fated  route,  by 
which  Braddock  had  marched  to  his  death.  Bouquet,  fired 
with  military  ambition,  detached  iNIajor  Grant,  with  a  force  of 
eight  hundred  Highlanders,  and  a  company  of  Virginia  militia- 
men, to  reconnoitre  the  fort.  Grant,  deceived  as  to  the  strength 
of  the  garrison,  divided  his  troops  so  as  to  form  an  ambuscade, 
and  at  daybreak,  on  the  14th  of  September,  beat  a  march  on 
his  drums  as  a  challenge  to  the  enemy.  The  French,  who  had 
been  re-enforced,  and  were  now  superior  in  number  to  the 
assailants,  poured  forth,  with  their  Indian  allies  and  beat,  in 
detail,  the  separate  divisions  of  Grant's  troops,  capturing  three 
hundred  of  the  Highlanders,  together  Avith  their  commander. 

Forbes  advanced  with  the  main  body  of  the  army,  as  fast  as 
the  difficidt  nature  of  the  country  would  permit,  but  not  till 
the  5th  of  November,  did  he  effect  a  junction  with  Bouquet,  at 
Eoyal  Hanna.  The  season  being  so  far  advanced,  it  was  at 
first  determined  to  proceed  no  further;  but  intelligence  being 
received  of  the  weakness  of  the  foft,  it  Avas  resolved  to  press 
on.  Colonel  Washington  commanded  the  advance-guard.  In- 
fusing his   own  energy  into  his  troops,  although  they  were 


CAMPAIGSS   OF  1758  AND  1759.  227 

ill-fed  and  ill-clothed,  ho  conducted  them  through  fifty  miles 
of  -wilderness,  over  hills  already  white  with  snow.  The  French 
commandant,  being  disappointed  in  receiving  military  stores, 
in  consequence  of  the  fall  of  Fort  Frontenac,  fired  the  works, 
and  by  the  light  of  the  conflagration,  the  disheartened  garrison, 
five  hundred  in  number,  retreated  down  the  Ohio.  On  the  25th 
of  Kovcmber,  "Washington  had  the  honour  of  planting  the  red- 
cross  flag  on  the  rampaiia  of  Fort  Pitt,  as  it  was  thenceforth 
called.  The  name  of  the  Great  Commoner  is  inscribed  forever 
on  the  gateway  of  the  Ohio  valley,  in  the  designation  of  the 
city  of  Pittsburg,  which  occupies  the  site  —  of  disastrous 
memory  —  of  Fort  Du  Quesne. 

This  event  closed  the  campaign  for  the  year  1758.  Never- 
theless, the  toils  were  gathering  around  the  doomed  colony  of 
Canada.  A  fervent  appeal  was  made  to  the  mother  country  for 
assistance.  But  the  exhaustion  produced  by  the  European  war, 
and  by  the  prodigality  of  the  court,  prevented  the  sending  of 
re-enforcements.  "  When  the  house  is  on  fire,"  said  the  min- 
ister, *' one  does  not  mind  the  sta])lcs."  The  colonists  rallied 
for  a  supreme  effort  for  the  defence  of  their  hearths  and  homes. 
Famine  stared  them  in  the  fiice.  The  half-tilled  acres  brought 
forth  but  meagre  crops,  and  the  shameless  exactions  of  Bigot 
were  more  grinding  than  ever.  The  entire  population,  from 
sixteen  to  sixty,  was  summoned  to  the  field,  but  though  every 
sixth  soul  in  the  colony  responded,  they  mustered  only  fifteen 
thousand,  of  whom  many  were  unavailable  for  service.  The 
chief  dependence  was  upon  ten  skeleton  regiments  of  regulars, 
in  which  ghastly  gaps  were  worn  by  siege  and  sortie,  by  famine 
and  disease.  To  these  the  British  opposed  fifty  thousand  well- 
armed  troops,  and  copious  reserves.  The  French  clergy  ex- 
horted the  people  to  repentance  and  increased  religious  devo- 
tion, and  invoked  the  aid  of  Heaven  as  their  only  succour. 
Differences  of  opinion  arose,  too,  between  Montcalm  and  Vau- 
drcuil,  the  Governor,  as  to  the  plans  of  defence.  The  former 
desired  his  recall,  but  at  the  connnand  of  duty  remained,  to  lay 
his  life  an  offering  upon  the  altar  of  his  country.  "  Canada 
must  be  taken  in  this  or  the  next  campaign,"  he  wrote,  with  a 


228  nisTonr  of  Canada. 

prescience  of  approaching  destiny,  "  "without  unexpected  good 
fortune,  or  great  fault  of  the  enemy."  Yet,  he  rekxcd  no 
elTort  for  the  securing  of  victory ;  but  rather  redouhlcd  his 
diligence  in  preparing  for  the  inevitable  struggle.  Stores  of 
provisions  and  military  materiel  were  collected  at  the  principal 
strategic  points.  The  fortifications  were  strengthened,  and 
vessels  were  constructed  for  maintaining  the  control  of  Lake 
Champlain. 

On  the  part  of  Great  Britain,  tremendous  efforts  were  made 
for  what  was  felt  to  ])e  the  supreme  struggle  with  the  French 
jjower  in  America.  England,  like  a  rampant  lion,  was  rousing 
herself  for  conquest.  The  House  of  Commons  voted  £12,- 
000,000  sterling  for  the  campaign  of  1759.  Pitt  infused  his 
own  spirit  into  every  l^ranch  of  the  sen^ice.  The  world  was 
ringing  with  British  victories.  In  India,  a  merchant's  clerk, 
with  a  handful  of  men,  had  conquered  an  empire,  where  the 
foot  of  Alexander  had  faltered.  Senegal,  Goree,  Guadaloupe, 
her  fairest  tropical  possessions,  were  wrested  from  France. 
On  the  bloody  plain  of  Minden,  her  choicest  troops  were 
crushed  before  the  British  lines.  At  Quibcron  Bay,  her  fleet, 
destined  for  the  invasion  of  England,  was  shattered  by  the 
gallant  Hawke.  Alike  on  the  banks  of  the  Ganges,  and  on  the 
banks  of  the  Ohio,  on  the  forts  of  the  Gold  Coast,  and  on  the 
ramparts  of  Louisburg,  the  red-cross  banner  waved  triumph- 
antly, and  it  was  destined  soon  to  crown  the  heights  of  Quebec. 
In  the  Indian  Seas,  on  the  Spanish  Main,  on  the  Atlantic,  and 
on  the  Pacific,  Britain's  fleets  were  ever;y^vhere  victorious. 

Pitt  chose  his  instruments  well.  With  the  instinct  of  genius, 
he  discerned  the  surpassing  merit  of  the  young  hero  of  Louis- 
burg, and  entrusted  to  him  the  conquest  of  Quebec.  "Wolfe 
was  born  in  the  village  of  Westerham,  in  Kent.  His  military 
instincts  were  hereditary,  his  father  having  served  with  distinc- 
tion in  the  continental  wars  of  Marll)orough.  Though  only 
thirty-three  years  of  age  when  assigned  the  task  which  he 
accomplished  at  the  cost  of  his  life,  Wolfe  was  already  a  veteran 
soldier,  having  been  eighteen  years  in  the  army.  At  tAventy- 
two,  he  was  a  lieutenant-colonel,  and  at  Dettingen,  Fontenoy, 


CAMPAIGNS   OF  1758  AND  1759. 


229 


and  Ciillodcn,  by  his  almost  reckless  bravery,  he  had  won  dis- 
tiuijuished  honours.  Though  raised  so  rapidly  to  the  rank  of 
o-cncral,  even  envy  breathed  no  word  of  detraction  against  his 
name,  and  he  commanded  the  love  and  admiration  of  the  entire 
army.  "  Wolfe,"  says  an  accurate  description  of  his  person 
and  character,  "was  a  plain  man.  His 
features  were  sharp,  his  forehead  some- 
what receding,  his  hair  sandy,  or  red, 
and,  contrary  to  the  fashion  of  the  time, 
was  not  powdered.  His  skin  was  coarse, 
fair,  and  freckled ;  but  his  mouth  w^ore 
a  smiling  and  gentle  expression,  and  his 
eyes  were  blue  and  benignant.  He  was 
delicate  from  early  youth,  and  the  seeds 
of  fatal  disease  were  implanted  in  his 
constitution.      At  first   his   address  and  wolfe. 

manner  were  imengaging,  but  he  invariably  endeared  himself 
to  all  with  whom  he  became  familiar.  All  his  thoughts  and 
actions  were  influenced  by  deep  religious  feeling.  He  was 
assiduously  and  conscientiously  attentive  to  his  profession,  and 
was  constitutionally  and  steadily  daring.  His  mind  was  clear 
and  active,  his  temper  lively  and  almost  impetuous.  He  was 
independent  M'ithout  pride,  and  generous  to  profusion.  His 
disposition  was  candid,  constant,  and  sincere.  His  letters 
breathed  a  spirit  of  tenderness  and  gentleness,  over  which 
ambition  could  not  triumph."  Such  is  the  attractive  portrait 
painted  of  Canada's  darling  hero,  the  conqueror  of  Quebec. 

To  Amherst,  who  superseded  Abercrombie  as  commander-in- 
chief,  was  assigned  the  reduction  of  Ticonderoga  and  Crown 
Point,  and  the  capture  of  Montreal ;  and  to  Prideaux,  the 
destruction  of  Fort  Niagara.  These  various  movements  were 
sustained  by  forces  amounting  to  twenty-five  thousand  men, 
which  were  to  concentrate  at  Quebec  for  the  last  act  of  the 
drama. 

The  French  had  rebuilt  Fort  Frontenac,  strengthened  the 
garrison  at  Niagara,  and  occu|)ied  the  passes  of  Carillon  and 
the  St.  Lawrence.     Bourlemaque,  an  accomplished  officer,  was 


230 


BISTORT  OF  CANADA. 


to  hold  the  forts  at  Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point,  as  long  as 
possible  ;  but  if  overpowered,  he  was  to  retire  to  Isle-aux-Noix, 
at  the  head  of  Lake  Champlain,  and  there,  aided  by  the  ship- 
ping, to  prevent,  by  his  utmost  efforts,  the  advance  of  Amherst's 
forces  to  join  the  army  of  Wolfe,  which  was  expected  to  attack 
Quebec.  The  Chevalier  de  la  Corne  entrenched  himself  above 
^Montreal,  with  eight  hundred  regulars  and  militia,  to  resist  any 
attempt  to  descend  the  St.  Lawrence,  by  a  British  force  from 
the  lakes.  The  diminished  forces  of  the  French  were  to  act 
strictly  on  the  defensive,  retiring,  in  case  of  defeat,  on  Quebec, 
where  the  final  stand  was  to  be  made. 

The  first  blow  fell  on  Niagara.  General 
Frideaux,  with  four  thousand  regulars  and 
militia,  and  a  large  body  of  Iroquois,  under 
Sir  William  Johnson,  advanced,  by  way  of 
the  Mohawk  and  Oswego,  to  Lake  On- 
tario. Leaving  a  force  of  occupation  at 
Oswego,  he  advanced  in  many  batteaux  to 
Niagara,  and  early  in  July,  1758,  invested 
the  fort  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  river, 
which  was  garrisoned  by  about  six  hundred  men.  Trenches 
were  opened  and  daily  pushed  nearer  the  works,  and  a  brisk 
fire  was  kept  up ;  but  General  Frideaux,  being  killed  by 
the  bursting  of  a  mortar,  the  command  devolved  on  Sir  Wil- 
liam Johnson.  M.  Fouchot,  the  French  commandant,  had 
summoned  to  his  aid  the  garrisons  of  Detroit,  Fresque  Isle,  and 
the  Western  forts.  His  defensive  works  were  almost  destroyed, 
and  the  bastions  were  strengthened  with  packages  of  peltries. 
The  fire  of  the  British  increased  in  violence,  and  the  garrison 
was  almost  exhausted  by  incessant  and  harassing  service  ;  and 
was  greatly  reduced  by  deaths.  Meanwhile,  M.  D'Aubrey  was 
hastening  to  the  relief  of  the  beleaguered  fort,  with  a  force  of 
twelve  hundred  Frenchmen  and  fourteen  hundred  Indians.  Sir 
William  Johnson,  who,  through  the  vigilance  of  his  scouts, 
was  informed  of  their  approach,  made  preparations  for  their 
reception.  Leaving  a  sufiicient  force  in  the  trenches  to  keep 
up  the  bombardment,  and  to  resist  any  sortie  that  might  be 


FORT  NIAGARA. 


CAMPAIGXS   OF  1758  ASD  1759.  231 

made  from  the  fort,  he  led  the  bulk  of  his  army  to  inter- 
cept the  re-enforcements  of  the  enemy.  A  strong  force  he 
concealed  behind  a  rampart  of  felled  trees,  to  the  left  of  the 
road  leading  to  the  Falls,  by  which  D' Aubrey  must  approach ; 
while  the  advance  guard  was  strongly  posted  in  the  woods. 
The  French  were  at  no  great  distance,  and  thus  the  two  armies 
bivouacked,  that  warm  midsummer  night,  which  was  to  many, 
on  both  sides,  their  last  on  earth. 

On  the  morning  of  July  24th,  the  leading  files  of  the  French 
were  seen  advancing  through  the  woods,  supported  by  large 
bodies  of  Indians.  The  British  outposts  fell  back  sfeadily  ou 
their  reserves.  Sir  William  Johnson's  Iroquois  warriors  at- 
tempted to  parley  with  the  Indian  allies  of  the  French,  and  to 
prevent  them  from  engaging  in  the  conflict,  but  without  success. 
D' Aubrey  now  brought  up  the  main  body  of  his  force,  and 
prepared  for  the  engagement,  on  which  depended  the  control 
of  the  great  lakes,  the  Ohio  valley,  and  the  far  West.  The 
Indian  allies  of  the  French  rushed  to  the  attack  with  the 
utmost  impetuosity,  yelling  their  terrible  war-whoop.  But  it 
no  Iqngcr  caused  such  dismay,  as  when  it  struck  terror  to  the 
hearts  of  Braddock's  grenadiers.  The  English  lines  stood 
firm  as  on  a  dress-parade,  and  with  a  few  steady  volleys,  not 
only  withstood  the  fierce  onset,  but  so  completely  swept  away 
their  Indian  assailants,  that  they  rallied  no  more,  but  fled 
panic-stricken  through  the  woods.  The  Iroquois  now  fell  on 
the  flanks  of  D'Aubrey's  command,  and  the  British  veterans 
rushed  to  the  charge  with  resistless  force.  The  French,  out- 
numbered, abandoned  by  their  allies,  and  attacked  on  all  sides, 
broke  into  precipitous  flight,  and  were  pursued  by  the  Iroquois, 
eager  as  hounds  slipped  from  the  leash,  for  the  congenial  task 
of  ruthless  slaughter,  and  the  forest  glades  were  filled  with 
dead  or  dying  men. 

M.  Pouchot,  with  his  beleaguered  garrison,  had  awaited  with 
the  utmost  anxiety  the  result  of  the  conflict,  the  distant  sounds 
of  which  were  borne  to  their  ears.  With  D'Aubrey's  defeat, 
the  last  hope  of  succour  disappeared.  All  the  honours  of  war 
were  granted  to  the  garrison,  which  had  made  such  a  gallant 


232  BISTORT  OF  CANADA. 

defence,  and  at  midday,  on  the  26th  of  July,  with  colours 
flying,  drums  beating,  and  bayonets  fixed,  they  marched  out 
of  the  crumbling  fort,  and  laid  down  their  arms  on  the  shores 
of  the  neighbouring  lake.  They  were  conveyed  as  prisoners 
to  New  York,  and  the  women  and  non-combatants  were  sent 
safely  to  France.  The  control  of  the  great  lakes  passed  away 
from  the  French  forever,  and  General  Bouquet  speedily  re- 
duced all  the  Western  forts,  except  that  of  Detroit  which,  for 
sometime  longer,  continued  to  hold  out  against  the  British. 

During  the  same  month  of  July,  an  attempt  was  made  by 
M.  de  la  Corne,  with  a  force  of  nearly  two  thousand  French 
and  Indians,  to  capture,  by  surprise,  the  British  fort  at  Oswego. 
The  vigilance  of  Colonel  Ilaviland,  the  officer  in  command, 
however,  frustrated  that  design,  and  the  assailants  were  driven 
off  with  severe  loss. 

The  chief  command  of  the  British  forces 
in  America,  had  been  assigned,  as  we  have 
seen ,  to  General  Amherst.  The  movements 
of  that  officer  must  now  engage  our  atten- 
tion. Early  in  May,  he  reached  Albany, 
the  appointed  rendezvous  for  the  provincial 
and  regular  troops.  The  whole  month  was 
LORT)  AMHERST,  employed  in  organizing  and  drilling  the  colo- 
nial regiments,  and  constructing  boats  for  their  transport  on 
Lake  George.  An  epidemic  of  desertion  among  the  troops, 
threatened  seriously  to  cripple  the  efficiency  of  the  army.  Even 
the  infliction  of  the  death-penalty  on  four  of  the  deserters,  by 
sentence  of  court-martial,  did  not  altogether  prevent  this  un- 
soldierly  conduct. 

The  French  continued  to  harass  the  English  colonists,  by 
scouting-parties,  composed  largely  of  blood-thirsty  savages, 
who  murdered  and  scalped  men,  women,  and  children  indis- 
criminately. To  prevent  these  outrages.  General  Amherst 
forwarded  a  dispatch  to  the  Governor  of  Canada,  to  the  effect 
that  he  was  determmed,  "  should  the  enemy  continue  to  murder 
and  scalp  women  and  children,  who  are  the  subjects  of  the 
King  of  Great  Britain,  to  revenge  it  by  the  death  of  two  men 


CAMPAIG\S   OF  1758  A\D  1759.  233 

of  the  enemy,  for  every  woman  or  child  murdered  by  tbcm." 
The  barbarizing  eiTects  of  the  employment  of  Indian  allies  in 
this  cruel  Avar,  was  felt  by  both  nations.  Even  civilized  men, 
both  French  and  English,  acquired  a  fatal  dexterity  in  the 
savage  practice  of  tearing  the  reeking  scalps  from  the  skulls 
of  their  victims,  as  the  proof  of  victory.  Not  only  were  men 
in  arms  and  bastioned  forts  the  objects  of  attack,  but  helpless 
non-combatants  were  ruthlessly  slain,  and  peaceful  hamlets  and 
smiling  cornfields  were  given  to  the  flames.  And  over  these 
scenes  of  slaughter  and  desolation,  waved  the  lilied  flag  of 
France,  or  the  red-cross  banner  of  Britain,  in  sanction  of  the 
unchristian  and  unnatural  strife.  It  is  a  crimson  page  in  our 
country's  history,  the  like  of  which,  let  us  hope,  shall  never 
more  be  seen. 

On  the  longest  day  in  the  month  of  June,  General  Amherst, 
with  the  bulk  of  his  army,  numbering  aljout  six  thousand  men, 
of  all  arms,  advanced  from  Fort  Edward  to  Lake  George. 
Here,  on  the  ruins  of  Fort  William  Henry,  the  general  con- 
structed a  small  fortification,  to  which  was  given  the  name  of 
Fort  George.  Another  month  was  employed  in  bringing  up 
additional  troops,  stores,  boats,  and  materiel  of  war,  and  in 
preparing  a  floating  battery  on  the  lake.  Frequent  skirmishes 
took  place  with  the  French  and  Indians,  generally  resulting  in 
loss  to  the  British. 

On  the  21st  of  July,  the  army,  numbering  over  eleven  thou- 
sand, about  equally  divided  as  regulars  and  colonial  militia, 
with  a  strong  force  of  artillery,  advanced  in  four  columns  down 
the  lake.  Mindful  of  Abercrombie's  disaster,  Amherst  observed 
exceeding  caution  on  approaching  Carillon.  A  brief  skirmish 
with  the  enemy  took  place,  after  landing,  in  which  the  French 
gave  way,  and  the  British  took  up  a  strong  position  at  the 
saw-mills,  memorable  in  Abercrombie's  defeat.  But  the  genius 
of  Montcalm  w^is  absent,  and  Do  Bourlemaque,  abandoning  the 
lines,  crowned  Avith  the  victory  of  the  previous  year,  retired 
within  the  fort,  which-was  garrisoned  with  three  thousand  four 
hundred  men.  The  British  grenadiers  immediately  occupied 
the  deserted  lines,  and  the  rest  of  the  army  encamped  in  the 
30 


234  HISTORY  OF  C AX  AD  A. 

rear.  From  the  fort,  the  French  kept  up  a  strong  fire  on  the 
position  of  the  British,  but  the  latter  were  completely  sheltered 
by  the  breastworks  thrown  up  by  the  enemy  for  their  own 
defence.  Perceiving  that  Fort  Carillon  was  no  longer  tenable 
against  the  superior  force  and  steady  determination  of  the  British, 
Bourlemaque  resolved  to  abandon  it.  He  therefore  silently 
withdrew  his  garrison  to  Fort  Frederick,  at  Crown  Point,  leaving 
four  hundred  men  to  keep  the  foe  at  bay  as  long  as  possible. 

In  order  the  better  to  mask  the  retreat,  this  gallant  little 
band  made  a  vigorous  sortie,  and  attacked  the  besiegers  in  the 
advanced  line  of  trenches,  and  for  three  days  longer  held  in 
check  an  army  of  eleven  thousand  men.  Having  obtained  the 
range  of  the  British  camp,  their  active  fire  did  considerable 
dama<2:e.  Amono^  others.  Colonel  Townshend,  ' '  the  Lord  Howe 
of  Amherst's  army,"  was  killed  by  a  cannon  shot  in  the  trenches. 
Late,  on  the  night  of  July  26th,  a  deserter  from  the  French 
informed  the  besiegers  that  the  fort  was  comj)letely  abandoned, 
having  been  previously  mined,  and  the  magazine  and  double- 
shotted  guns  connected  with  a  lighted  fuse.  A  tremendous 
explosion,  shaking  the  ground  like  an  earthquake,  confirmed 
the  story,  and  a  volcano  of  fire  and  burning  embers  illumined 
the  midnight  heavens.  The  barracks,  stores,  and  wooden 
ramparts  now  caught  fire,  and  their  lurid  blaze,  with  the  flash 
of  exploding  cannon,  made  luminous  the  forest,  far  and  near. 

Amherst  promptly  occupied  the  smoking  ruins,  extinguished 
the  flames,  and  set  vigorously  to  work  to  repair  the  defensive 
works  of  the  fort.  Having  secured  his  position,  he  sent  a  force 
to  reconnoitre,  and  feel  the  strength  of  the  enemy  at  Fort 
Frederick ;  but  it  was  found  to  have  been  already  abandoned. 
Amherst,  with  the  main  body  of  his  army,  soon  took  possession, 
and  wasted  much  time  in  the  construction  of  a  new  fort,  which 
the  conquest  of  Canada  would  render  useless,  to  which  the 
name  of  Crown  Point  was  given.  Thus,  at  last,  was  secured, 
with  a  comparatively  slight  loss,  the  strongholds  which  com- 
manded the  gateway  of  Canada,  the  attempt  to  reduce  which 
had  proved  so  disastrous  to  Abercrombie,  with  a  much  superior 
force.     The  British  expended  on  the  reconstruction  of  these 


CAMPAIGNS   OF  175S  AXD  IToO. 


235 


forts  the  enormous  sum,  for  those  days,  of  £200,000.  Then- 
ravelins  and  demihmcs,  curtains  and  casemates  have  long 
since  crumbled  to  dc- 
ca3^  The  summer 
tourist,  wandering 
amid  their  grass- 
grown  trenches  and 
ramparts,  beholds 
slight  trace  of  those 
deeds  of  violence  and 
blood  of  which  they 
were  the  scene. 

Bourlemaque      had 
taken     up     a    strong 


~^^^^m 

^^1 

-^^^==S==^^=5E==== 

j| 

*""* 

^^^ 

^^ 

r^  -^   1 

^^2J 

I^^^H 

RUINS  OF  TICONDEROGA. 


position  at  Isle-aux-Noix,  at  the  northern  end  of  Lake  Cham- 
plain,  commanding  the  navigation  of  the  Richelieu  River. 
Here,  he  strongly  entrenched  himself,  and  determined  to  hold 
his  position  to  the  last  extremity,  and  to  prevent  the  advance 
of  Amherst  to  the  St.  Lawrence.  He  mustered  a  force  of  three 
thousand  five  hundred  men,  and  the  possession  of  four  well- 
armed  and  well-manned  vessels,  gave  him  the  command  of 
Lake  Champlain.  Amherst,  more  cautious  than  enterprising, 
instead  of  attempting  to  force  the  position  of  Bourlemaque, 
spent  the  summer  in  constructing  vessels  to  cope  with  the  little 
French  fleet  upon  the  lake.  "When  at  length  the  vessels  and 
a  floating  battery  were  ready,  it  Avas  the  middle  of  October. 
Several  incficctual  naval  skirmishes  with  the  enemy  took  place 
on  the  unfamiliar  waters  of  the  lake,  resulting  in  the  beaching 
of  several  vessels  of  both  fleets. 

The  bleak  storms  of  autumn  now  prevented  further  active 
operations.  The  army,  held  in  check  on  the  very  threshold  of 
Canada,  was  compelled  to  go  into  winter  quarters  at  Crown  Point. 

Similar  tardiness  characterized  the  action  of  General  Gage, 
who  had  superseded  Sir  "William  Johnson,  in  command  of 
Prideaux's  army,  after  the  victory  of  Fort  Niagara.  He  had 
been  ordered  by  Amherst  to  make  a  demonstration  from  Oswego 
against  La  Presentation  (Ogdensburg),  wherer  the  French  had 


236  BISTORT  OF  CANADA. 

established  a  strong  post.  The  difficulties  of  the  undertaking 
were  considerable,  but  instead  of  making  a  vigorous  effort  to 
overcome  them,  he  allowed  the  harvest-time  of  opportunity  to 
pass  by  unimproved,  and  the  reduction  of  the  post  did  not  take 
place  till  the  following  year. 

One  of  the  most  daring  and  difficult  exj^loits  executed  during 
this  campaign,  was  Major  Rogers'  expedition  against  the  In- 
dians on  Lake  St.  Francis.  These  Indians  had  detained  as 
prisoners,  an  English  officer  and  his  party,  who  had  been  sent 
with  a  flag  of  truce  to  convey  a  profier  of  amity  and  alliance, 
from  General  Amherst.  Early  in  October,  Major  Eogers  set 
out  from  Crown  Point,  with  two  hundred  men,  to  punish  the 
perfidy  of  this  tribe.  His  route  lay  through  a  tangled  and 
almost  impenetrable  wilderness.  The  hardships  and  privations 
of  the  three  weeks'  march,  reduced  the  force  by  more  than  one- 
fouiih.  At  length  they  came,  undiscovered,  upon  the  object  of 
their  search.  The  Indians  were  engaged  in  one  of  their  glutton 
feasts  and  war-dances.  When  sunk  in  the  profound  torpor 
that  follows  these  excesses,  the  British  soldiers  burst  upon  the 
sleepers,  and  scarce  one  of  the  savage  warriors  escaped.  Two 
hundred  were  slain,  and  the  English  captives  w^ere  rescued  from 
slavery.  In  the  meanwhile,  a  party  of  Frenchmen,  superior 
in  numbers,  captured  the  boats  of  the  English,  and  threatened 
to  cut  off  their  retreat.  Rogers'  only  plan  of  escape  was  to 
break  up  his  force  into  small  i^arties,  which  should  retrace  their 
way  as  best  they  could  through  the  wilderness  of  mountains 
and  forests,  to  the  English  settlements.  They  sufiered  in- 
credible hardships  in  the  attempt.  They  were  reduced  to  the 
utmost  extremity  of  privation.  They  devoured  the  leather 
straps  and  covers  of  their  cartouch-boxes.  They  were  at  one 
time  four  days  without  food.  Many  perished  of  hunger,  others 
went  crazed  with  suffering  and  despair,  and  even  devoured,  in 
their  frenzy,  the  flesh  of  some  of  their  murdered  companions, 
cut  off  by  the  Indians.  At  length,  in  the  bleak  November 
weather,  looking  more  like  spectres  than  like  human  beings, 
they  reached  the  abode  of  civilized  men.  Such  was  one  of 
the  tragic  episodes  of  the  conquest  of  Canada. 


CONQUEST  OF  CANADA.  237 


CHAPTEE    XVm. 


THE  CONQUEST  OF  CANADA,  1759-1760. 

The  Expedition  agaiust  Quebec  —  Wolfe  occupies  the  Island  of  Orleans  —  Mid- 
night Alarm —  The  Fire-rafts  —  Point  Levi  occupied  —  The  Siege  opened — 
Straits  of  the  Inhabitants  —  Heights  of  Montraorenci  occupied  —  Wolfe  and 
Admiral  Rous  above  Quebec  —  The  Attack  at  Montmorenci  —  Terrific  Can- 
nonade—  A  gallant  Assault  and  disastrous  Defeat  —  Wolfe's  Illness  —  An 
audacious  Design  —  The  Eve  of  the  Battle — The  British  gain  the  Heights 
above  Quebec  — The  Battle  of  the  Plains  of  Abraham  — The  Death  of  Wolfe 
and  Montcalm  —  British  Occupation  of  Quebec  —  A  severe  Winter  —  De  Levi 
attempts  the  Recapture  of  Quebec  —  Battle  of  Ste.  Foye  —  French  Siege  of 
Quebec  —  English  Fleet  arrives  —  Siege  raised  —  Amherst's  advance  down 
the  St.  Lawrence  —  Capture  of  La  Presentation  —  Disaster  at  Cedar  Rapids 
—  Surrender  of  Montreal  and  Capitulation  of  Canada. 

THE  last  act  of  this  historic  drama,  the  conquest  of  Quebec, 
must  now  be  described.  Simultaneously  with  the  opera- 
tions of  Prideaux  and  Amlierst  upon  the  outposts  of  1759, 
Canada,  AVolfe  was  attacking  its  heart  and  menacing  its  very 
life.  About  the  middle  of  Fel^ruary,  a  powerful  British  fleet 
of  twenty-two  ships  of  the  line,  five  frigates,  nineteen  smaller 
vessels,  and  a  crowd  of  transports,  under  the  command  of 
Admiral  Saunders,  a  brave  and  judicious  officer,  sailed  from 
England  for  the  St.  Lawrence.  Louisburg  was  the  appointed 
place  of  rendezvous,  but  on  account  of  the  ice  the  fleet  was 
compelled  for  some  time  to  take  refuge  in  the  safe  and  commo- 
dious harbour  of  Halifax.  Admiral  Durell  was  despatched  with 
a  small  squadron  to  intercept  an  expected  convoy  of  provi- 
sion and  store  ships  destined  for  the  relief  of  Quebec.  He  was 
only  partially  successful,  capturing  two  vessels,  but  with  them, 
the  important  prize  of  French  charts  of  the  St.  Lawrence, 
which  were  of  great  service  to  the  British  fleet  in  the  somewhat 
difficult  navigation  of  the  river. 

It  was  not  till  the  first  week  in  June  that  Saunders'  fleet 
cleared  from  Louisburg,  conveying  a  force  of  eight  thousand 
regular  troops  under  the  command  of  Wolfe.     On  the  twenty- 


238 


HISTORY  OF  C AX  ADA. 


fifth  of  the  month  he  anchored  oif  the  Island  of  Orleans,  a 
short  distance  below  Quebec.  The  French  had  relied  much  on 
the  dangerous  passage  of  "the  Traverse,"  as  impeding  the 
progress  of  the  fleet ;  but,  by  means  of  the  charts  and  careful 
soundings,  it  was  safely  overcome.  Durell,  who  led  the 
van,  carried  French  colours  at  his  masthead  till  he  reached 
Bic,  in  order  to  prevent  opposition  from  the  hahitans.  Pilots 
hastened  on  board  to  offer  their  assistance,  and  messengers 
were  despatched  to  Quebec  conveying  intelligence  of  the  arrival 
of  anticipated  succours  from  France.  Great  was  the  disap- 
pointment when  the  union-jack  was  run  up  to  the  peak. 
It  is  said  that  a  Canadian  priest,  who  was  watching  the  vessels 
through  a  telescope,  was  so  overwhelmed  with  the  mental  shock 
that  he  instantly  fell  down  dead.  As  the  snowy  sails  of  the 
hostile  fleet  were  seen  rounding  the  Island  of  Orleans,  the  in- 
habitants of  Quebec  thronged  the  churches  to  offer  up  their 
prayers  for  the  preservation  of  their  country.  The  British 
troops  promptly  occupied  the  fair  and  fertile  island,  with  whose 


CITY  OF  QUEBEC. 

loveliness  they  were  delighted,  after  their  long  confinement  on 
shipboard. 

Wolfe  hastened  to  the  upper  end  of  the  island  to  get  his  first 
view  of  Quebec.     Before  him  rose  the  rocky  height,  crowned 


COXQUEST  OF  CAXADA.  239 

with  massy  walls  and  ramparts,  and  bristling  with  guns,  — the 
Ehrcnbrcitstcin  or  Gibraltar  of  America,  and  one  of  the  stron- 
gest natural  positions  in  the  world. 

As  he  viewed  the  steep  escarpment  and  the  frowning  batteries 
that  lined  the  river-front,  tlie  position  of  the  French  seemed 
almost  impregnable.  INIontcalm  had  strongly  fortified  with 
redoubts  and  earthworks  the  precipitous  banks,  from  Cape 
Eouge,  eight  miles  above  Quebec,  to  INIontmorenci,  as  far 
below,  and  had  mustered  a  force  of  some  thirteen  thousand  men 
of  every  age,  from  boys  of  thirteen  to  veterans  of  eighty.  De 
Bougainville*  commanded  the  right  w^ing  of  the  army  to  the 
west  of  the  city,  De  Levi  the  left  on  the  extreme  east,  and 
^Montcalm  held  the  centre  with  the  bulk  of  the  arm}^  while 
Indians  scoured  the  woods  on  the  flanks  and  in  the  rear.  A 
strong  boom,  sunken  ships  and  floating  batteries,  closed  the 
mouth  of  the  St.  Charles  ;  and  shoal  water  and  mud-flats,  along 
the  Beauport  shore,  made  landing  almost  impossible. 

While  Wolfe  w\as  gazing  on  the  fortress  whose  conquest  was 
to  give  him  an  early  grave  and  undying  fame,  a  violent  thun- 
der-storm burst  over  his  head,  and  a  hurricane  swept  over  the 
river.  Some  of  the  transports  dragged  their  anchors,  and  were 
driven  ashore.  The  ships  of  war,  with  difficulty,  kept  their 
moorings,  and  several  of  their  boats  were  swamped. 

As  the  storm  passed  away,  night  came  on,  still  and  dark  and 
starless.  At  midnight,  as  the  British  sentries  paced  their  round 
on  the  rocky  shores  of  the  island,  they  noticed  certain  dark 
objects  drifting  down  the  river  with  the  ebbing  tide.  It  was 
soon  apparent  that  they  were  six  fire-ships,  prepared  by  Mont- 
calm for  the  destruction  of  the  British  fleet.  While  the  sentries 
gazed  on  these  strange  objects,  a  deadly  explosion  of  artillery 
flashed  from  their  black  hulks,  crashed  among  the  trees,  and 
ploughed  seething  furrows  in  the  w\ater.  Shells  and  grenades 
burst  in  the  vicinity  of  the  astonished  guard.     Falling  back  on 

*  It  is  a  somcAvhat  curious  coincidence  that  James  Cook,  tlio  distinguished 
navigator,  and  Bougainville,  the  first  French  circumnavigator  of  the  globe, 
vrere  engaged  in  the  service  of  their  respective  couutries  in  this  memorable 
siege. 


240  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

tlicir  supports  thoj^  became  inextricably  confused  in  the  woods. 
The  roll  of  drums  roused  the  sleeping  camp,  and  the  soldiers, 
anticipating  an  attack  of  the  enemy  in  force,  turned  out  under 
arms. 

Meanwhile,  the  fire-ships  had^,  burst  into  a  blaze,  the  bright 
red  flames  leaping  from  shroud  to  shroud,  defining  in  tracery  of 
fire,  each  rope  and  spar,  against  the  sal)le  sky,  and  waving  in 
broad  banners  from  the  burning  sails  and  masts.  The  rushmg 
river,  the  silent  fleet,  the  English  camj),  the  distant  city  were 
lit  up  almost  as  with  the  light  of  day.  As  the  flames  spread, 
with  a  burst  like  thunder,  vessel  after  vessel  exploded,  and 
drifted  perilously  near  the  anchored  fleet.  As  'the  burning 
^\Tecks  approached,  boats,  well-manned  by  British  tars  grap- 
pled them  with  iron  hooks  and  towed  them  ashore,  or  sent  them 
drifting  harmlessly  down  the  river.  But  for  the  premature 
exi:)losion  of  the  fire-ships  serious  damage  might  have  been 
done  the  British  fleet  by  this  well-planned  attack.  The  panic 
in  the  camp  did  not  yield  to  the  usual  order  and  confidence,  till 
daylight  showed  that  no  enemy  was  near. 

Wolfe  now  issued  a  proclamation  to  the  people  of  Canada, 
offering  safety  of  person  and  property  and  freedom  in  religion, 
and  enjoining  strict  neutrality  on  civilians.  It  proved,  how- 
ever, of  little  avail,  as  the  French  clergy  exhorted  their  parish- 
ioners to  resist  to  the  utmost  the  invaders,  as  the  enemies  both 
of  their  religion  and  their  race.  Montcalm  also  commanded 
their  services  under  penalty  of  death.  They,  with  their  Indian 
allies,  proved  only  too  skilful  adepts  in  the  art  of  forest  war- 
fare, and  in  cutting  off  stragglers,  murdering  and  scalping  the 
wounded,  and  mutilating  the  dead.  In  vain  Wolfe  remon- 
strated against  these  barbarities.  In  retaliation,  therefore,  and 
as  a  measure  of  military  necessity,  we  must  suppose,  —  for  he 
was  a  man  of  humane  instincts, — he  ravaged  the  country  and 
burned  the  villages  both  above  and  below  Quebec.  He  for- 
bade, however,  personal  violence  to  prisoners  and  non-comba- 
tants, on  pain  of  death. 

Admiral  Saunders  had  been  taught  by  the  storm  that  the 
anchorage  off  the  Island  of  Orleans  was  by  no  means  safe,  and 


COXQUEST  OF  CANADA. 


241 


resolved  to  move  his  fleet  into  the  basin  in  front  of  Point  Levi. 
Brigadier-General  IMonckton,  Avith  a  strong  force,  was,  there- 
fore, ordered  to  take  possession  of  Point  Levi,  a  somewhat 
strong  position,  which  had 


been      occupied 
French.       The 


by    the 
advance- 


guard  landed  after  slight 
resistance,  and  pursued  a 
small  body  of  the  enemy 
as  far  as  a  large  farm- 
house, where  the  English 
soldiers  halted  for  rest 
and  refreshment. 


Before  retiring  on 


SIEGE   OF  QUEBEC,   1759. 

their  main  body,   they 


fired  the  farm-house,  and  were  startled  to  hear,  amid  the  flames, 
the  cries  of  women  and  children  who,  at  the  approach  of  the 
troops,  had  taken  refuge  in  a  cellar.  The  horror-stricken 
soldiers  laboured  strenuously  to  rescue  the  sufierers,  but  in 
vain.  The  roof  fell  in  with  a  crash,  and  put  an  end  to  this 
dreadful  tragedy.  Such  are  some  of  the  terrible  episodes  of 
war.  A  thousand  Canadian  militia  and  Lidians  now  threw 
themselves  into  the  church  and  houses  of  the  village,  and  were, 
with  nuich  difficulty,  dislodged  by  the  British. 

In  the  capture  of  Point  Levi,  Wolfe  obtained  an  impor- 
tant advantage,  as  it  gave  the  opportunity  of  planting  bat- 
teries within  three-quarters  of  a  mile  of  the  city.  Montcalm 
was  deeply  chagrined  at  the  loss  of  this  position.  He  had 
urged  that  it  should  be  defended  to  the  last  extremity  by  an 
entrenched  force  of  four  thousand  men,  but  had  been  over- 
ruled by  Yaudreuil,  the  Governor.  An  attempt  was  made  to 
dislodge  the  British  by  means  of  floating  batteries,  but  it  proved 
futile.  "Wolfe  planted  strong  batteries  at  Point  Levi,  and  on 
the  Island  of  Orleans,  w^hich  completely  secured  the  safety  of 
the  British  fleet  in  the  basin.  From  this  commanding  position, 
during  the  month  of  July,  such  an  incessant  and  heavy  fire 
was  poured  into  the  doomed  city,  that  conflagrations  were  of 
almost  daily  occurrence,  and  soon  the  greater  part  of  both 
Upper  and  Lower  Town  was  in  ruins.  No  less  than  five  hun- 
31 


242  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

clred  buildings,  including  the  cathedral  and  principal  edifices, 
were  destroyed.  Many  persons  were  killed  in  the  streets,  and 
non-combatants  were  forced  to  retire  for  safety  into  the  coun- 
try. The  beleaguered  city  was  reduced  to  the  severest  straits. 
"  We  are  without  hope,  and  without  food,"  said  an  intercepted 
letter;  "  God  hath  forsaken  us."  Such  are  the  tender  mercies 
of  war,  even  between  two  chivalric  nations,  and  conducted  by 
two  generous  commanders. 

On  the  9th  of  July,  under  cover  of  a  cannonade  of  ]Mont- 
calm's  lines  by  the  fleet,  "Wolfe  crossed  with  the  main  body  of 
his  army  from  the  Island  of  Orleans  to  the  north  shore,  and 
formed  a  camp  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Montmorenci.  His 
plan  was  to  force  the  enemy's  lines,  and  bring  on  an  engage- 
ment, in  which  he  believed  that  the  disciplined  skill  of  his 
veteran  troops  would  be  more  than  a  match  for  the  superior 
numbers  of  the  French.  But  the  rapid  current  of  the  Mont- 
morenci, rushing  tumultuously  over  its  rocky  bed,  presented  no 
fordable  place  for  several  miles  inland,  and  the  Ihdian  scouts 
of  the  French,  with  disastrous  success,  cut  off  and  scal^jed  the 
reconnoitering  parties  of  the  English. 

An  attempt  was  made  by  one  of  Montcalm's  officers,  with 
eighteen  hundred  French  and  Indians,  to  recapture  Point  Levi 
in  a  night  attack ;  but,  amid  the  darkness,  the  assailants  fell 
into  confusion,  and  fired  into  each  other's  ranks,  causing  a  loss 
of  seventy  men. 

Finding  his  efibrts  to  break  the  French  lines  on  their  eastern 
wing  completely  unavailing,  Wolfe  determined  to  reconnoitre 
the  river  above  the  town.  To  facilitate  this  purpose,  Captain 
Rous,  toward  midnight,  on  the  18th  of  July,  aided  by  the 
flood-tide  and  a  favouring  wind,  succeeded  in  passing  the 
enemy's  batteries  with  a  small  squadron,  without  being  discov- 
ered till  it  was  too  late  to  bring  the  guns  to  bear.  As  a  warn- 
ing against  similar  carelessness,  two  of  the  unvigilant  sentinels 
were  the  next  day  hanged  on  a  lofty  gibbet.  The  following 
day,  Wolfe  and  Saunders  ran  the  gauatlet  of  the  batteries.  By 
hugging  the  southern  shore  their  barge  escaped  with  the  loss  of 
a  mast.     The  aspect  of  the  frowning  cliff,  bristling  at  every 


CONQUEST  OF  CANADA.  243 

assailable  point  with  cannon,  was  sufficiently  discouraging  to 
the  young  commander.  In  order  to  harass  the  enemy,  the  little 
town  of  Point-aux-Trembles  was  plundered,  and  a  general  order 
was  issued  commanding  the  troops  to  burn  and  lay  waste  the 
country,  sparing  only  the  churches. 

Wolfe  soon  returned  again  to  the  Montmorenci,  where  he 
resolved  that  an  attack  in  force  must  take  place.  Serious  skir- 
mishes with  the  enemy  were  of  almost  daily  occurrence,  in 
which  a  calamitous  loss  of  life  took  place,  without  gaining  any 
commensurate  advantage.  On  the  night  of  the  twenty-eighth, 
a  fire-raft,  laden  with  shells,  grenades,  explosives,  and  tar-bar- 
rels, was  sent  down  on  the  ebb-tide  against  the  British  fleet. 
The  English  sailors,  on  the  alert  as  before,  towed  this  danger- 
ous contrivance  ashore  without  its  having  caused  any  damage. 
The  next  day,  Wolfe  sent  a  flag  of  truce  to  Quebec  with,  the 
following  peremptory  message  :  "  If  the  enemy  presume  tosend 
down  any  more  fire-rafts,  they  are  to  be  made  fast  to  two  par- 
ticular transports,  in  which  are  all  the  Canadian  and  other  pris- 
oners, in  order  that  they  may  perish  by  their  own  base  inven- 
tions." This  threat  of  stern  retaliation  efiectually  prevented 
the  recurrence  of  the  experiment. 

It  was  now  the  end  of  July.  Five  weeks  had  passed,  serious 
losses  had  been  encountered,  and  only  slight  advantage  gained. 
^Montcalm  continually  extended  and  strengthened  his  lines,  and, 
notwithstanding  his  superiority  of  numbers,  stood  strictly  on 
the  defensive,  except  that  his  Indian  scouts  waylaid  and  cut  oft' 
every  British  soldier  who  ventured  far  from  the  camp.  Wolfe's 
expedition  was  understood  to  be  auxiliary  to  that  of  Amherst, 
and  any  less  enthusiastic  soldier  would,  in  the  presence  of  the 
gigantic  difficulties  before  him,  feel  justified  in  waiting  for  a 
junction  with  the  force  under  the  commander-in-chief  before 
attempting  an  attack  upon  such  an  apparently  impregnable 
stronghold.  But  the  mind  of  Wolfe  was  cast  in  an  heroic  mould, 
and  difficulties  and  dangers  but  excited  him  to  increased  daring. 
He  therefore  resolved  on  an  attempt,  bold  almost  to  the  verge 
of  rashness. 

From  the  Montmorenci  to  Quebec  was  a  continuous  line  of 


244  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

defences  and  earthworks,  eight  miles  in  extent.  The  water 
toward  the  shore  is  shoal,  and  the  ebb  of  the  tide  exposes  a 
broad  extent  of  mud-flats.  To  the  west  of  the  Falls  of  Mont- 
morenci  the  clilT  is  precipitous  and  high,  and  was  crowned  by 
batteries  commanding  the  shore.  At  the  foot  of  the  cliff  was  a 
French  redoubt.  Yet  the  only  practicable  ford  of  the  Mont- 
morenci,  except  a  difficult  one  three  miles  up  that  river,  was  at 
this  8pot,  and  that  only  when  the  tide  was  out.  Wolfe  resolved 
to  disembark  a  large  force  in  the  face  of  a  strongly  entrenched 
enemy,  to  storm  the  precipitous  heights,  to  break,  if  possible, 
Moncalm's  Hues,  and  to  bring  on  a  general  engagement,  which, 
ho  hoped,  would  decide  the  fate  of  Quebec. 

The  31st  of  July  was  the  day  chosen  for  the  attempt.  To- 
ward noon,  the  *' Centurion,"  a  sixty-gun  frigate,  with  two 
armed  transports,  stood  in  toward  the  shore,  near  the  Falls  of 
Montmorenci,  and  opened  fire  upon  the  redoubt.  The  British 
batteries  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  heights  above  and  at  Point 
Levi,  also  began  a  heavy  cannonade  on  the  French  lines,  and 
on  the  city.  The  enemy  responded  with  promptness  and  vigour, 
and  the  whole  vast  amphitheatre,  eight  miles  in  extent,  re- 
echoed with  the  roar  of  artillery.  Montcalm,  suspecting  his 
antagonist's  design,  began  to  mass  his  forces  toward  the  threat- 
ened point  of  attack,  till  AVolfe  made  a  feint  of  a  counter- 
demonstration  by  ordering  the  march  of  a  body  of  troops  west- 
ward from  Point  Levi. 

Meanwhile,  a  combined  flotilla  of  the  ships'  barges,  convey- 
ing the  attacking  party,  lay  in  mid  stream,  waiting  the  order  to 
advance.  At  four  o'clock,  the  signal  was  given,  and,  with  a 
cheer,  the  sailors  sprang  to  their  oars.  The  flotilla  swept  on, 
heedless  of  the  hissing  shot  which  soon  began  to  fall  among  the 
boats,  by  which  some  of  them  were  shattered.  Others  grounded 
on  a  ledge  of  rocks,  and  the  line  was  thrown  into  confusion ; 
but,  under  the  inspiration  of  Wolfe,  the  stout-hearted  tars  soon 
rallied,  and  swept  the  boats  to  the  landing-place.  The  grena- 
diers, who  were  in  the  foremost  line,  eager  as  hounds  in  leash, 
sprang  ashore,  and  the  French  fled  from  the  redoubt. 

The  advance  body  of  grenadiers  had  been  ordered  to  form  in 


CONQZrEST  OF  CAXADA.  245 

columns  and  await  the  support  of  !Monckton's  brigade  from  the 
boats,  and  of  Townslicnd's  troops,  which  were  advancing  to  cross 
the  ford  at  the  foot  of  the  Mis.  But,  flushed  with  rash  valour, 
they  rushed  impetuously  up  the  steep  slope,  crowned  with  the 
batteries  of  the  enemy.  A  violent  summer  storm  now  burst 
upon  them.  Stumbling  on  the  slippery  incline,  and  their  ammu- 
nition soaked  with  rain,  they  were  hurled  back  in  disastrous 
defeat  by  a  crushing  fire  from  the  French  entrenchments.  Four 
hundred  and  fifty  men  lay  dead  or  wounded  on  the  gory  slope. 
The  day  was  irretrievably  lost ;  but  Wolfe,  with  his  reserves, 
with  the  utmost  steadiness  covered  the  retreat  and  re-embark- 
ation of  his  gallant  but  defeated  troops.  The  stranded  trans- 
ports were  abandoned  and  burned,  and  the  flotilla  moved  away 
from  the  fatal  shore. 

Chagrin  and  grief  at  this  disaster  threw  the  young  com- 
mander into  a  well-nigh  fatal  fever.  His  heroic  soul  was  housed 
in  a  frail  body.  Tossing  on  his  couch  of  pain,  he  felt 
that  the  eyes  of  his  country  were  upon  him,  and  the  disappoint- 
ment of  its  expectations  was  anguish  to  his  spirit.  A  council 
of  the  brigadier-generals  was  held,  to  which  Wolfe  submitted 
three  several  plans  of  attack  on  IMontcalm's  lines  below  Quebec. 
They  were  all,  however,  rejected  as  impracticable.  The  sug- 
gestion of  Brigadier-General  George  Townshend,  of  climbing 
the  precipitous  face  of  the  cliff  above  the  city,  a  design  whose 
audacity  was  the  secret  of  its  success,  was  adopted  by  the 
young  commander. 

jMeanwhile  the  season  was  rapidly  passing,  and  whatever  was 
to  be  done,  must  be  done  quickly.  If  jMontcalm  could  only 
hold  out  a  few  weeks  longer,  winter  would  become  his  ally,  and 
compel  the  retreat  of  the  British.  The  anny  was  considcral)ly 
reduced  by  casualties  and  by  sickness,  many  officers  and  men 
having  died  of  fever.  Provisions,  also,  had  become  so  scarce 
that  rations  of  horseflesh  were  frequently  served  out.  An 
efibrt  was  made  to  open  communications  with  Amherst,  lying 
idly  at  Crown  Point ;  but  beyond  the  moral  encouragement 
derived  from  his  victory,  and  from  that  of  Johnston  at  Niagara, 


246  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

no  advantage  accrued  to  Wolfe  from  the  existence  of  two  large 
and  well-equipped  armies  within  a  few  days'  march. 

The  conflict  grew  in  bitterness.  The  city  was  reduced  almost 
to  a  mass  of  ruins  by  the  ceaseless  fire  of  the  British,  and  the 
adjacent  country  on  the  south  shore  was  laid  waste  far  and 
wide. 

Early  in  September,  Wolfe,  masking  his  designs  by  feints 
against  Beauport,  moved  the  bulk  of  his  army  and  fleet  up  the 
river  above  the  city,  despite  the  heavy  fire  from  the  batteries 
of  Quebec.  The  keen  eyes  of  the  commander  soon  detected 
the  only  practicable  spot  at  which  the  cliif  could  be  climbed  — 
a  small  cove  about  three  miles  above  the  city,  which  has  ever 
since  borne  his  name.  The  most  careful  preparations  were 
made  by  the  fleet  and  army  for  the  movement,  but  its  precise 
nature  was  kept  a  secret,  in  order  to  prevent  the  possibility  of 
its  betrayal  to  the  enemy. 

On  the  early  moonless  morning  of  September  13th,  before 
day,  the  fleet  dropped  silently  down  the  river  with  the  ebbing 
tide,  accompanied  by  thirty  barges  containing  sixteen  hundred 
men,  which,  with  muflled  oars,  closely  hugged  the  shadows  of 
the  shore.  Pale  and  weak  with  recent  illness,  Wolfe  reclined 
among  his  officers,  and,  in  a  low  tone,  blending  with  the  rip- 
pling of  the  river,  recited  several  stanzas  of  the  recent  poem, 
Gray's  "Elegy  written  in  a  Country  Churchyard."  Perhaps 
the  shadow  of  his  own  approaching  fate  stole  upon  his  mind,  as 
in  mournful  cadence,  he  whispered  the  strangely-prophetic 
words, 

"  The  boast  of  heraldry,  the  jiomp  of  power, 

And  all  that  beauty,  all  that  wealth  e'er  gave, 
Alike  await  the  inexorable  hour  ; 

The  paths  of  glory  lead  but  to  the  grave." 

With  a  prescience  of  the  hollo wness  of  military  renown,  he 
exclaimed,  "  I  would  rather  have  written  those  lines  than  take 
Quebec  to-morrow." 

Challenged  by  an  alert  sentry,  an  officer  gave  the  counter- 
sign, which  had  been  learned  from  a  French  deserter,  and  the 
little  flotilla  was  mistaken  for  a  convoy  of  provisions  expected 


CONQUEST  OF  CANADA. 


247 


from  Montreal.  Landing  in  the  deeply-shadowed  cove,  the 
agile  Highlanders  climbed  lightly  up  the  steep  and  narrow  path 
leading  to  the  summit.  "Quivive?"  demanded  the  watchful 
sentinel.  "  La  France,"  replied  Captain  McDonald,  the  High- 
land officer  in  command,  and,  in  a  moment,  the  guard  was  over- 
powered. The  troops  swarmed  rapidly  up  the  rugged  preci- 
pice, aiding  themselves  by  the  roots  and  branches  of  the  stinited 
spruces  and  savins  ;  the  barges  meanwhile  promptly  transferring 
fresh  re-enforcements  from  the  fleet.  With  much  difficulty,  a 
single  field-piece  was  dragged  up  the  rugged  steep. 

When  the  sun  rose,  the  plain  was  glittering  with  the  arms  of 
plaidcd  Highlanders  and  English  red-coats,  forming  for  battle. 
The  redoubled  fire  from  Point  Levi  and  a  portion  of  the  fleet, 
upon  Quebec,  and  the  lines  of  Beaupoi-t,  detained  Montcalm 
below  the  city,  and  completely  deceived  him  as  to  the  main  point 
of  attack.     A  breathless  horseman  conveyed  the  intelligence 


OLD  ST.   JOHN'S  GATE.* 

at  early  dawn.     At  first  incredulous,  the  gallant  commander 
was  soon  convinced  of  the  fact,  and  exclaimed,   "  Then  they 


*  It  was  through  St.  John  and  St.  Louis  gates  that  the  greater  part  of 
Montcalm's  army  passed,  before  and  after  the  battle  of  the  Plains  of  Abraham. 
The  gates,  as  shown  in  the  cuts,  have  been  subject  to  reconstruction  since  that 
time. 


248  BISTORT  OF  CANADA. 

have  got  the  weak  side  of  this  wretched  garrison,  but  we  must 
fight  and  crush  them  ;"  and  the  roll  of  drums  and  peal  of  bugles 
on  the  fresh  morning  air,  summoned  the  scattered  army  to  action. 
With  tumultuous  haste,  the  skeleton  regiments  hurried  through 
the  town,  and,  about  nine  o'clock,  formed  in  long  thin  lines 
upon  the  Plains  of  Abraham,  without  waiting  for  artillery, 
except  two  small  field-pieces  brought  from  the  city.  This  was 
Montcalm's  great  and  fatal  mistake.  Had  he  remained  behind 
the  ramparts  of  Quebec,  he  could  probably  have  held  out  till 
the  approach  of  winter  would  compel  the  retreat  of  the  British. 
Including  militia  and  regulars,  the  French  numbered  seven 
thousand  five  hundred  famine-wasted  and  disheartened  men, 
more  than  half  of  whom  were,  in  the  words  of  Wolfe,  '*  a  dis- 
orderly peasantry."  Opposed  to  them  were  less  than  five  thou- 
sand* veteran  troops,  eager  for  the  fray,  and  strong  in  their 
confidence  in  their  beloved  general. 

Montcalm  hoped,  by  superiority  of  numbers,  to  outflank  the 
British,  when  the  expected  arrival  of  De  Bougainville  from 
Point-aux-Trembles  would,  he  anticipated,  enable  him  to  win  the 
battle.  The  steadfastness  of  the  brigades  under  Generals  Howe 
and  Townshend,  who  held  the  extreme  left  of  the  British,  pre- 
vented the  accomplishment  of  that  manoeuvre.  Montcalm  now 
attacked  in  full  force  the  centre  and  right  wing  of  the  British, 
driving  in  the  skirmishers  on  the  main  body.  Wolfe  passed 
rapidly  along  the  line,  cheering  his  men,  and  exhorting  them 
not  to  fire  without  orders.  Firm  as  a  wall,  they  awaited  the 
onset  of  the  French.  In  silence  they  filled  the  ghastly  gaps 
made  in  their  ranks  l)y  the  fire  of  the  foe.  Not  for  a  moment 
wavered  the  steady  line.  Not  a  trigger  was  pulled  till  the 
enemy  arrived  within  forty  yards.  Then,  at  Wolfe's  ringing 
word  of  command,  a  simultaneous  volley  flashed  from  the 
levelled  guns,  and  tore  through  the  adverse  ranks.  As  the 
smoke-wreaths  rolled  away  upon  the  morning  breeze,  a  ghastly 
sight  was  seen.  The  French  line  was  broken  and  disordered, 
and  heaps  of  wounded  strewed  the  plain.  Gallantly  resisting, 
they  received  another  deadly  volley.     With  cheer  on  cheer,  the 

*  The  exact  number  was  4,828.     That  of  the  French  is  estimated  at  7,520. 


COXQUEST  OF  CANADA. 


249 


British  charged  before  they  could  re-form,  and,  trampling  the 
dying  and  the  dead,  swept  the  fugitives  from  the  field,  pursuing 
them  to  the  city  gates,  and  to  the  banks  of  the  St.  Charles.     In 


ST.  LOUIS  GATE. 

fifteen  minutes,  was  lost  and  won  the  battle  that  gave  Canada 
to  Great  Britain.  The  British  loss  was  fifty-seven  killed,  and 
six  hundred  wounded ;  that  of  the  French  was  fifteen  hundred 
killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners. 

Besides  the  multitude  of  slain 
on  either  side,  whose  death  car- 
ried desolation  into  many  a  hum- 
ble home,  were  the  brave  com- 
manders of  the  adverse  hosts. 
Almost  at  the  first  fire,  Wolfe 
was  struck  by  a  bullet  that  shat- 
tered his  wrist.  Binding  a  hand- 
kerchief round  the  wound,  he  led 
the  way  to  victory.  In  a  moment, 
a  ball  pierced  his  side,  but  he  still 
cheered  on  his  men  Soon  a  third  shot  lodged  deep  in  his 
breast.     Staggering  into  the  arms  of  an  officer,  he  exclaimed, 


WOLFE'S  OLD  MO>nntfENT,  QUEBEC. 


250 


HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 


*'  Support  me  !     Let  not  my  brave  fellows  see  me  fall."     He 

was   borne  to   the    rear,    and   gently   laid   upon   the   ground. 

' '  See  !    they   run ! "    exclaimed   one    of   the   officers   standing 

by.  < '  Who  run  ? "  demanded 
Wolfe,  arousing  as  from  a 
swoon.  **  The  enemy,  sir  ; 
they  give  way  everywhere," 
was  the  reply.  ' '  What  I 
already?"  said  the  dying 
man,  and  he  gave  orders  to 
cut  oif  their  retreat.  * '  Now, 
God  be  praised,"  he  mur- 
mured, "  I  die  content,"  and 
he  gently  breathed  his  last.* 
His  brave  adversary, 
Montcalm,  also  fell  mortally 
wounded,  and  was  borne 
from  the  field.  *'  How  lonof 
shall  I  live  ? "  he  asked  the 
surgeon.  "Notmany hours," 
was  the  reply.  "I  am  glad 
of  it,"  he  said  ;  "  I  shall  not 
see  the  surrender  of  Que- 
bec." He  refused  to  occupy 
his  mind  longer  with  earthly 
concerns.  To  De  Eamsay, 
who  commanded  the  garri- 
son, and  who  sought  his 
WOLFE'S  NEW  MONUMENT,  QUEBEC.        advlcc  as  to  the   defence   of 

the  city,  he  said  :  **  My  time  is  very  short,  so  pray  leave  me. 

To  your  keeping  I  commend  the  honour  of  France.      I  wish 

you  all  comfort  and  a  happy  deliverance  from  your  perplexities. 

As  for  me,  I  would  be  alone  with  God,  and  prepare  for  death." 


*  On  the  spot  -where  "Wolfe  fell,  a  simple  monument  was  erected.  This  -was 
superseded,  in  1849,  hy  the  more  tasteful  memorial  shown  in  the  larger  engrav- 
ing. It  bears  the  simple  but  eloquent  inscription :  —  "  HERE  DIED  WOLFE, 
VICTORIOUS." 


COXQUEST  OF  CANADA.  251 

To  another  he  said :  ' '  Since  it  is  my  misfortune  to  be  defeated 
and  mortally  wounded,  it  is  a  great  consolation  that  I  have 
been  defeated  by  so  great  and  generous  an  enemy."  He  died 
before  midnight,  and,  coffined  in  a  rude 
box,  was  buried  amid  the  tears  of  his 
soldiers  in  a  grave  made  by  the  burst- 
ing of  a  shell.  So  perished  a  brave 
and  noble-hearted  man,  a  skilful  gen- 
eral and  an  incorruiDtible  patriot.  At 
a  time  when  the  civil  officers  of  the 
crown,  with  scarce  an  exception,  were 
battening  like  vampires  on  the  life-  ^^-^\  ;feCl!  "^[f^ 
blood  of  the  colony,  Montcalm  lavished  ^  ^Z_,--Ti  I, 
his  private  resources,  and  freely  gave 
up  his  life  on  its  behalf.  ^        ^^^' 

Bougainville,  who  had  menaced  the  rear  of  the  British  with 
fifteen  hundred  regulars,  including  three  hundred  and  fifty 
cavalry,  withdrew  to  Cape  Kouge,  and  Vaudreuil,  with  fifteen 
hundred  militia,  abandoned  the  lines  of  Beauport,  both  of  them 
leaving  their  heavy  guns  and  stores  behind.  General  Towns- 
hend,  who  took  command  of  the  British,  immediately  began 
the  construction  of  an  entrenched  camp  on  the  plain,  and  in 
three  days  had  a  hundred  and  twenty  guns  and  mortars  in 
position  for  the  siege  of  the  city. 

It  was,  however,  already  reduced  almost  to  ruins,  and  its  walls 
and  ramparts,  it  was  evident,  must  soon  yield  to  the  vigorous 
cannonade  with  which  they  were  threatened.  Its  garrison  was 
totally  inadequate  to  the  task  of  defence,  and  the  daily  rations 
amounted  to  only  a  few  ounces  of  bread  per  man.  The  citi- 
zens, therefore,  urged  De  Eamsay  to  capitulate.  "We  have 
cheerfully  sacrificed  our  houses  and  our  fortunes,"  they  said, 
"  but  we  cannot  expose  our  wives  and  children  to  massacre." 

M.  de  Levi  had  been  summoned  from  Montreal  by  Vaudreuil 
to  take  command  of  the  shattered  forces.  He  sent  word  to 
De  Ramsay  to  hold  out  to  the  last  extremity,  — with  the  promise 
that  provisions  and  re-enforcements  should  be  thrown  into  the 
town.     But  the  message  came  too  late.     The  terms  of  capita- 


252 


HISTORY   OF  CANADA. 


lation  were  already  signed,  and  on  the  18th  of  September, 
1759,  the  rock-built  citadel  of  Quebec  passed  forever  from  the 
dominion  of  France.  It  was  strongly  provisioned  and  garri- 
soned, and  the  hunger  of  the  wretched  inhabitants  relieved 
from  the  stores  of  the  conqueror.  Brigadier-General  IMurray 
assumed  the  office  of  Governor,  and  Admiral  Saunders  and  his 
fleet,  with  the  exception  of  two  frigates,  sailed  for  England. 
The  garrison  of  Quebec,  —  about  a  thousand  in  number,  — had 
been  permitted  to  march  out  with  the  honours  of  war,  to  be 
afterward  conveyed  to  the  nearest  port  of  France. 

The  tidings  of  this  glorious  conquest  filled  Old  and  New 
England  with  pride  and  exultation.  The  joy-bells  pealed  and 
bonfires  blazed  throughout  the  land.  But  the  victory  brought 
pangs  of  anguish  to  two  loving  hearts,  —  those  of  the  widowed 
mother  and  the  affianced  bride  of  the  gentle  hero,  who,  amid 
the  glory  of  arms,  yearned  for  the  quiet  joys  of  domestic  life. 
England  gave  his  body  a  grave,  and  his  fame  a  monument  in. 
the  mausoleum  of  her  mighty  dead,  and  inscribed  his  name  in 
her  glorious  bead-roll  of  immortal  souls,  who,  for  her  sake, 
freely  laid  down  their  lives. 

Near  the  scene  of  their  death,  a 
grateful  people  have  erected  a  com- 
mon monument  to  the  rival  com- 
manders, who  generously  recognized 
each  other's  merit  m  life,  and  now 
keep  for  evermore  the  solemn  truce  of 
death.  The  two  races  which  met  in 
the  shock  of  battle  dwell  together  in 
loving  fealty,  beneath  the  protecting 
folds  of  one  common  flag. 

England  had  never  known  a  year 
of  such  triumphs  as  this.  In  all 
jDarts  of  the  world  her  arms  were  vic- 
torious. At  Lagos,  at  Quiberon,  at 
INIinden,  at  Quebec,  her  fleets  or  armies  won  new  renown. 
"  We  must  ask  every  morning,"  said  Horace  Walpole,  *'  what 
new  victory  there  is." 


WOLFE  AND  MONTCALM'S  MONUSIENT, 


COXQUEST  OF  CANADA.  253 

The  condition  of  Canada  was  now  one  of  extreme  exhaus- 
tion. The  loss  of  Niagara,  Ticonderoga,  Crown  Point  and 
Quebec,  and  its  disasters  in  the  field  had  greatly  crippled  its 
strength.  The  Indian  tribes  were  not  slow  to  perceive  that 
their  ancient  allies  could  no  longer  oifer  them  protection,  and 
began  to  waver  in  their  support.  The  inhal)itants  of  several 
parishes  in  the  vicinity  of  Quebec,  formally  took  the  oath  of 
allegiance  to  the  British.  The  winter  was  one  of  intense 
severity,  and  to  the  French  one  of  iniexampled  dearth  and 
distress,  and  many  persons  died  of  want.  General  Murray 
repaired  some  five  hundred  houses  fur  the  accommodation  of 
his  troops,  constructed  wooden  redoubts  without  the  walls,  and 
established  distant  outposts  to  protect  his  foragers,  and  to  watch 
the  movements  of  the  enemy.  The  labour  of  procuring  fuel 
from  a  distance  of  ten  miles,  and  of  maintaining  a  defence 
against  harassing  assaults  exhausted  the  vigour  of  the  garri- 
son. Its  eflJcctive  strength  was  reduced  by  deaths,  scurvy, 
frost-bites,  and  other  casualties,  from  seven  thousand  to  less 
than  half  that  numljcr. 

Notwithstanding  the  disasters  of  the  previous  year,  France 
was  not  to  surrender  her  fairest  possession  without  ireo. 
another  struggle.  ]\I.  de  Levi,  early  in  the  spring,  collected 
ten  thousand  men  at  IMontreal,  and,  toward  the  end  of  April, 
attempted  the  recapture  of  Quebec.  His  stores,  ammunition, 
and  artillery,  he  sent  down  the  river  in  barges  and  small  ves- 
sels, and  followed  by  land  with"  every  available  man  and  gun. 
On  the  27th  of  April,  General  Murray,  apprized  of  the  ap- 
proach of  the  French,  called  in  his  outposts,  broke  down  the 
bridges,  and  retired  within  the  walls,  while  De  Levi  occupied 
the  neighbouring  village  of  Ste.  Foj'e  and  its  vicinity.  The  fol- 
lowing morning,  at  daybreak,  with  more  valour  than  prudence, 
Ttlun-ay  marched  out  his  skeleton  battalions,  supported  by 
twenty  field-pieces,  to  give  battle  to  threefold  odds.  Ho  found 
the  French  cleaning  their  guns,  which  had  been  wet  by  rain 
during  the  night,  and  apparently  unprepared  for  action.  He 
gave  orders  for  an  immediate  attack,  and  his  little  army 
advanced  in  order  of  battle.     De  Levi  speedily  drew  up  his 


254 


HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 


troops  in  a  triple  line,  placing  the  militia  in  the  intervals 
between  the  veteran  soldiers.  For  nearly  two  hours  the  battle 
raged  with  the  utmost  fury  ;  but,  outflanked  and  overwhelmed 
by  superior  numbers,  Murray  was  compelled  to  take  refuge 
behind  the  ramparts  of  Quebec,  leaving  three  hundred  men  dead 
upon  the  field,  and  all  his  artillery  in  the  hands  of  the  enemy. 
About  seven  hundred  men  were  wounded,  who  were  nearly  all, 
however,  brought  safely  within  the  walls.  The  loss  of  the 
French  in  this  fruitless  battle  was  still  more  terrible,  amounting 
to  fully  eighteen  hundred  killed  or  Avounded.  To  the  inevitable 
horrors   of   war,    they    are 

I  accused  of  adding  needless 
atrocity  by  refusing  quarter 
to  several    British    officers, 
^"'  cHfl  and  abandoning    a   number 

^;  of  their  wounded  prisoners 
m!  to    be    massacred    by    the 
Indians. 

De  Levi  speedily  en- 
trenched himself  before  the 
city,  and  pressed  the  siege 
for  eighteen  days,  maintain- 
31  injr  a  feeble  fire  from  fifteen 
guns.  The  garrison,  re- 
duced to  two  thousand 
effective  men,  speedily  got 
one  hundred  and  thirty  guns 
into  position,  and  kept  up  a 
vigorous  reply ;  the  women 
and  wounded  making  sand- 
bags to  protect  the  works, 
and  cartridges  for  the  guns. 
Besiegers  and  besieged  both  looked  for  aid  from  an  ex- 
pected fleet.  Eager  eyes  were  strained  continually  toward 
Point  Levi  for  signs  of  its  approach.  At  length  a  strange 
frigate  rounded  the  headland,  amid  the  anxious  suspense  of  the 
beholders.     As  the  union-jack  was  run  up  to  the  peak,  cheer 


STE.  FOYE  MONUMENT  (ERECTED  1863) 


CONQUEST  OF  CANADA.  255 

on  cheer  rang  from  the  ramparts,  and  deep  chagrin  filled  the 
heai-ts  of  the  besiegers  in  the  trenches.  Soon  two  other  vessels 
arrived,  the  French  shipping  was  attacked  and  destroyed,  and 
De  Levi  made  a  hasty  retreat,  abandoning  tents,  baggage,  and 
siege  train  in  his  flight. 

He  retired  to  Montreal,  there  to  make  the  last  stand  for  the 
possession  of  Canada.  His  broken  battalions  melted  rapidly 
away,  the  famished  militia  deserting  by  thousands,  in  order  to 
succour  their  suflfering  families.  Three  English  armies  con- 
verged on  the  heart  of  the  colony,  where  life  still  feebly  beat. 
General  Murray,  with  all  his  available  force,  advanced  from 
Quebec,  overcoming  all  opposition  and  everywhere  receiving 
the  submission  of  the  inhabitants.  Colonel  Haviland,  with 
three  thousand  men,  hastened  from  Crown  Point  by  way  of 
Lake  Champlain  and  the  Richelieu,  occupying  the  forts  evacu- 
ated by  the  French.  General  Amherst  jDroceeded  from  Albany, 
with  ten  thousand  men  and  seven  hundred  Indians  under  Sir 
William  Johnson,  by  the  strange  detour  of  the  Mohawk  and 
Oswego  rivers  to  Lake  Ontario,  and  thence  down  the  St. 
Lawrence. 

At  La  Presentation  (Ogdensburg),  was  a  French  fort  of 
considerable  strength.  Unwilling  to  leave  a  hostile  force  in  his 
rear,  Amherst  gave  orders  for  its  reduction.  A  storming  party 
of  grenadiers,  with  scaling  ladders,  was  told  oE;  and  the  British 
batteries  and  armed  vessels  were  placed  in  position  for  bom- 
bardment. The  little  garrison,  however,  bravely  defied  an 
army  and  opened  such  an  eflfective  fire  that  one  of  the  vessels 
was  disabled,  and  had  to  be  abandoned.  After  a  resistance, 
more  than  sufficient  for  the  vindication  of  his  honour,  M.  Pou- 
chot,  the  hero  of  Fort  Niagara,  submitted  once  more  to  the 
humiliation  of  surrender. 

The  Iroquois  allies  of  the  British  had  resolved  to  avenge 
their  real  or  imagined  wrongs  by  the  massacre  of  the  garri- 
son. Amherst  learning  their  atrocious  design,  took  efiect- 
ual  measures  to  prevent  it.  The  Indians  sullenly  submitted, 
but  bitterly  resented  the  interference,  and  threatened  to  aban- 
don the  expedition.     "  Although  I  wish  to  retain  their  friend- 


256  BISTORT  OF  CANADA. 

ship,"  answered  the  general,  "  I  will  not  purchase  it  by  coun- 
tenancing barbarity."  His  maintenance  of  his  honour,  more 
than  compensated  for  the  loss  of  his  allies,  and  reflected  more 
glory  on  his  name  than  his  conquest  of  the  fort. 

As  the  expedition  approached  the  Cedar  Rapids,  Amherst 
ex^Dected  that  the  enemy  would  take  advantage  of  the  diflBcult 
and  dangerous  navigation  to  contest  his  passage.  He  did  not, 
therefore,  permit  the  boats  to  descend  the  rapids  singly ;  but 
insisted  on  advancing  with  a  number  of  boats  together,  convey- 
ing a  sufficient  force  of  artillery  and  grenadiers  to  overcome 
any  probable  opposition.  As  the  boats  entered  the  surging 
rapids  they  became  crowded  one  against  another,  and  many 
were  dashed  in  pieces  or  wrecked  upon  the  rocks.  By  this 
disaster,  eighty-eight  men  and  sixty-four  boats  were  lost, 
together  with  a  quantity  of  artillery  and  stores. 

The  three  armies  of  Amherst,  Haviland,  and  Murray,  reached 
Montreal  on  three  successive  days  ;  and  on  the  8th  of  Septem- 
ber, sixteen  thousand  men  beleaguered  the  devoted  town,  the 
last  stand  of  French  fidelity  and  valour.  It  was  defended  only 
by  frail  walls,  and  by  three  thousand  war-wasted  and  disheart- 
ened men.  Resistance  was  impossible.  The  most  heroic 
courage  could  do  no  more,  The  same  day,  De  Vaudreuil 
signed  the  capitulation  which  severed  Canada  from  France 
forever.  The  vast  region  extending  from  the  fishing-stations 
in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  to  the  Mississippi  and  the  Ohio 
rivers,  passed  under  the  sovereignty  of  Great  Britain.  The 
entire  military  muster  of  Canada,  included  in  the  capitulation, 
consisted  of  four  thousand  regular  troops,  who  were  conveyed 
to  France,  and  over  sixteen  thousand  colonial  militia,  who 
were  permitted  to  return  unmolested  to  their  homes. 


BRITISH  RULE.  257 


CHAPTER  XrX. 

BEinSH  EULE— THE  CONSPIEACY  OF  PONTIAC. 

Beneficial  Effects  of  the  Conquest  —  State  of  the  Country  —  Military  Govern  ■ 
ment  —  Impeachment  and  Punishment  of  liigot  —  The  Peace  of  Paris,  17G3  — 
Conspiracy  of  Pontiac  —  Siege  of  Detroit  —  Massacres  in  the  West  —  Bou- 
quet's Victory  at  Bushy  Eun  —  Jealousies  of  French  and  English  Eaces  —  Sir 
Guy  Carleton  Governor  —  Law  Eeforms  —  The  Quebec  Act,  1774. 

THE  conquest  of  Canada  by  the  British  was  the  most  for- 
tunate event  in  its  history.  It  supplanted  the  institutions 
of  the  middle  ages  by  those  of  modern  civilization.  It  gave 
local  self-government  for  abject  submission  to  a  foreign  power 
and  a  corrupt  court.  It  gave  the  protection  of  the  Habeas 
Corpus  and  trial  by  jury,  instead  of  the  oppressive  tribunals  of 
feudalism.  For  ignorance  and  repression,  it  gave  cheap 
schools  and  a  free  press.  It  removed  the  arbitrary  shackles 
from  trade,  and  abolished  its  unjust  monopolies.  It  enfran- 
chised the  serfs  of  the  soil,  and  restricted  the  excessive  power 
of  the  seigneurs.  It  gave  an  immeasurably  ampler  liberty  to 
the  people,  and  a  loftier  impulse  to  progress,  than  was  before 
known.  It  banished  the  greedy  cormorants  who  grew  rich  by 
the  official  plunder  of  the  poor.  The  waste  and  ruin  of  a  pro- 
longed and  cruel  war  were  succeeded  by  the  reign  of  peace 
and  prosperity  ;  and  the  pinchings  of  famine  by  the  rejoicings 
of  abundance.  The  habitans  could  now  cultivate  their  long 
neglected  acres  free  from  the  molestation  of  Indian  massacres, 
or  fear  of  British  invasion  ;  nor  were  they  subject  to  the  con- 
tinual pillage  of  a  Varin,  a  Cadet,  or  a  Bigot.  The  departure  of 
the  impoverished,  but  haughty  noblesse^  who  looked  down  on 
honest  labour,  instead  of  being  a  social  loss,  relieved  the 
industry  of  the  country  of  a  grievous  incubus.  Even  the  con- 
quered colonists  themselves,  soon  recognized  their  improved 
condition  under  their  generous  conquerors. 
33 


258  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

The  Abbe  Raynal,  a  contemporary  French  historiographer, 
thus  WT-ites  concerning  the  results  of  the  conquest:  "  To  the 
impenetrably  mysterious  transactions  of  a  cruel  inquisition, 
succeeded  a  cool,  rational,  and  public  trial ;  and  a  tribunal 
dreadful,  and  accustomed  to  shed  blood,  was  replaced  by  humane 
judges,  more  disposed  to  acknowledge  innocence  than  to  sup- 
pose criminality.  The  conquered  people  have  been  still  more 
delighted,  by  finding  the  liberty  of  their  persons  secured  for- 
ever by  the  famous  law  of  Habeas  Corpus.  As  they  had  too 
long  been  victims  of  the  arbitrary  wills  of  those  who  governed 
them,  they  have  blessed  the  beneficent  hand  that  drew  them 
from  a  state  of  slavery  to  put  them  under  the  urotectiou  of 
just  laws." 

The  one  hundred  and  fifty-seven  years  of  French  occupancy 
had  been  one  long  struggle  against  fearful  odds,  — first  with  the 
ferocious  savages,  then  with  the  combined  power  of  the  British 
colonies  and  the  mother  country.  The  genius  of  French 
Canada  was  a  strange  blending  of  the  military  and  religious 
spirit.  Even  commerce  wore  the  sword,  and  a  missionary 
enthusiasm  quickened  the  zeal  of  her  early  explorers.  The 
reign  of  peaceful  industry  was  now  to  succeed  that  of  martial 
prowess,  and  was  to  win  victories  no  less  renowned  than  those 
of  war. 

As  a  provisional  measure,  till  a  treaty  of  peace  should  define 
the  future  relations  of  the  country,  a  military  government  was 
organized  in  Canada.  The  country  was  divided  into  three 
jurisdictions,  —  Quebec,  Montreal,  and  Three  Rivers,  —  ruled 
respectively  by  Generals  Murray  and  Gage,  and  Colonel  Bur- 
ton. A  council  of  officers  was  held  twice  a  week,  which 
administered  justice  in  all  matters  brought  before  it.  The 
despotic  authority  of  this  council  was  tempered  only  by  the 
integrity  and  generosity  of  its  members.  This  military  rule, 
though  distasteful  to  the  conquered,  blended  firmness  with 
kindness,  and  repressed  sedition  while  it  protected  loyalty. 
The  free  exercise  of  their  religion  was  accorded  to  the  people, 
and  their  more  pressing  necessities  were  generously  relieved. 
The  militia  were  sent  to  their  homes,  and  the  regular  soldiers, 


BRITISH  RULE.  2o0 

four  thousand  iu  number,  were  conveyed  to  France.  A  con- 
siderable exodus  of  the  noblesse,  officials,  and  merchants ,  also 
took  place. 

Financially,  the  colony  Avas  bankrupt.  Bigot's  paper  cur- 
rency, which  had  flooded  the  country,  was  worthless,  and  great 
commercial  depression  ensued.  It  had  been  issued  ostensibly 
on  the  authority  of  the  King  of  France,  but  had  reached  the 
extent  of  over  three  millions  sterling,  Avhich  was  far  in  excess 
of  the  authorized  amount,  and  had  so  depreciated  as  to  be 
worth  only  four  per  cent,  of  its  original  value.  When  the  con- 
quest put  an  end  to  French  rule,  the  royal  treasury  refused  to 
redeem  this  paper,  and  its  holders  sustained  a  loss  equal  to 
three  hundred  thousand  pounds  sterling. 

Even  during  the  last  siege  of  Quebec  by  De  Levi,  and  in  the 
very  death-agony  of  the  colony,  Bigot,  and  his  fellow-conspira- 
tors, sought  to  enrich  themselves  out  of  the  ruins  of  their 
country.  Falsified  accounts,  in  which  were  exorbitant  charges 
for  work  never  done,  and  supplies  never  furnished,  were 
authorized  by  the  engineers,  and  paid  by  the  Intendant,  who 
received  himself  the  lion's  share  of  the  dishonest  gains.* 
Vast  quantities  of  stores  provided  for  the  army  were  seized  by 
the  monopolists,  and  resold  at  extortionate  prices,  the  soldiers 
being,  meantime,  wretchedly  supplied,  and  the  people  actually 
perishing  of  want. 

Deep  chagrin  was  felt  in  France  at  the  loss  of  the  fairest 
colony  of  the  crown,  with  the  subjugation  of  sixty  thousand 
loyal  subjects,  who,  for  seven  years  of  battle  and  sieges,  of 
privation  and  suflering,  had  bravely  struggled  against  over- 
whelming numbers  to  save  Canada  for  the  mother  country.  A 
court  of  inquiry  into  the  official  conduct  of  the  chief  colonial 
functionaries  was,  therefore,  held  in  Paris,  before  which  nearly 
every  civil  officer  was  summoned. 

*  "  Among  the  other  charges  against  the  French  government,"  says  Warbiir- 
ton,  "  was  put  forward  a  bill  for  three  hundred  thousand  moccasins  for  the 
Indians ;  the  infamous  Cadet  managed  this  contract  himself,  in  the  name  of  his 
clerk,  and  charged  the  crown  no  less  than  three  hundred  thousand  livres  for 
the  fraudulent  supply." 


260  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

M.  de  Yaudreiiil,  the  late  Governor,  together  with  Bigot  and 
other  members  of  the  "  Grand  Company,"  on  their  return  to 
France  were  thrown  into  the  Bastile,  to  await  their  trial.  The 
Governor  was  honourably  acquitted.  After  fifty-six  years 
faithful  service  of  the  crown  as  Governor,  successively,  of 
Three  Elvers,  Louisiana,  and  Canada,  he  returned  to  his  native 
country  poor,  having  sacrificed  his  private  fortune  for  the  pub- 
lic weal.  The  crimes  of  the  Intendant  were  more  than  proven. 
He  and  his  fellow  cormorants  were  compelled  to  disgorge  their 
ill-gotten  plunder,  to  the  amount  of  nearly  twelve  million 
francs,  and  were  exiled  from  France  forever. 

In  October,  1760,  George  III.  became  King.  The  very 
eminence  of  Pitt  made  him  obnoxious  to  the  crown  and  nobles. 
The  Great  Commoner  resigned  office,  and  was  ofi'ered  the 
government  of  Canada,  but  the  not  very  tempting  offer  was 
declined.  Still,  the  impulse  of  Pitt's  policy  enabled  England, 
Prussia,  and  little  Portugal  to  withstand  the  combined  power 
of  Europe.  The  naval  victories  of  Watson  and  Pococke,  and 
the  conquest  of  the  Philippines  and  Cuba,  though  over- 
shadowed by  the  horrors  of  the  siege  of  Havana,  one  of  the 
most  memorable  in  history,  maintained  the  ancient  supremacy 
of  the  "  sea-girt  isle."  The  awful  ravages  of  the  Seven  Years' 
War  had  desolated  a  large  part  of  Europe,  had  slain  a  million 
of  men,  accumulated  a  mountain  of  debt,  and  produced  a  heri- 
tage of  international  hate  and  domestic  grief,  when  the  Peace 
of  Paris  again  gave  rest  to  the  war-wearied  world  in  17G3. 
France  surrendered  to  Great  Britain  the  whole  of  Nova  Scotia, 
Cape  Breton,  Canada,  and  the  Great  West  to  the  valleys  of  the 
AYabash  and  the  Illinois,  and  the  fair  and  fertile  West  India 
Islands  of  Gaudaloupe,  Grenada,  St.  Vincent,  Tobago,  Mar- 
tinico,  and  Dominica,  and  her  East  India  possessions ;  and 
Spain  gave  up  Florida,  and  all  her  territory  east  of  the  Missis- 
sippi. "Never,"  exclaimed  the  exultant  King,  <<  did  any 
nation  in  Europe  sign  such  a  peace  before." 

Yet  there  were  not  wanting  prophets  to  foretell  that  these 
great  colonies  would  not  always  remain  subject  to  the  little 
island   beyond   the   sea.     "If  the   people   of   our    colonies," 


BRITISH  RULE.  261 

wrote  "William  Burke,  a  relative  of  his  illustrious  namesake, 
**find  no  check  from  Canada,  they  will  extend  themselves 
almost  without  bounds,  and  increase  infinitely  from  all  causes. 
"What  the  consequence  will  be,  to  have  a  hardy,  numerous  and 
independent  people,  possessed  of  a  strong  country,  communi- 
cathig  little,  or  not  at  all,  with  England,  I  leave  to  your  own 
reflections.  A  neighbour  that  keeps  us  in  some  awe  is  not 
always  the  worst  of  neighbours.  There  should  be  a  balance  of 
power  in  America." 

Soon  after  the  cession  of  Canada,  the  red  cross  of  St.  George 
supplanted  the  lilied  flag  of  France  on  the  wooden  redoubts 
of  Presqu'  Isle,  De  Beuf,  Venango,  Detroit,  Miami,  Michilli- 
mackinac,  and  other  forts  in  the  west.  Major  Eogers,  with  two 
hundred  of  his  forest  "Rangers,"  had  proceeded  from  Montreal, 
soon  after  the  capitulation,  to  convey  dispatches  to  the  western 
forts,  and  to  receive  the  submission  of  the  French  commandants. 
Near  the  site  of  the  present  city  of  Cleveland  he  was  met  by 
the  celebrated  warrior,'  Pontiac,  who  had  always  been  the 
stanch  ally  of  the  French.  This  haughty  forest  potentate 
accosted  the  intruding  British  officer  with  the  demand  :  ' '  How 
have  you  dared  to  enter  my  country  without  my  leave?"  <*  I 
come,"  replied  Eogers,  "with  no  design  against  the  Indians, 
but  to  remove  the  French  out  of  your  country,"  and  he  offered 
the  wampum  of  peace.  This  Pontiac,  for  a  time,  declined  to 
accept,  and  at  length  agreed,  like  a  sovereign  prince,  to  suffer 
the  red-coat  soldiers  to  remain  in  his  country  so  long  as  they 
treated  him  with  due  deference  and  respect. 

But  the  authority  of  the  English  was  of  an  aggressive  and 
uncompromising  character,  nor  was  it  exercised  with  as  much 
judiciousness  as  had  been  that  of  the  French.  The  Indians  no 
longer  received  the  courteous  treatment  nor  the  politic  presents 
to  Avhich  they  had  been  accustomed.  Their  chiefs,  when  visit- 
ing a  fort,  were  not  now  greeted  with  the  roll  of  drums  and 
firing  of  cannon,  nor  were  they  cajoled  with  flatteries,  bribed 
with  medals  and  decorations,  or  regaled  at  the  officers'  tables, 
as  was  often  the  case  under  the  astute  rule  of  their  former 
friends,  —  masters  they  would   have  disdained  to  call  them. 


262  HISTORY  OF  C AX  AD  A. 

The  Englisli,  on  the  contrary,  did  not  take  the  trouble  to  study 
savage  etiquette,  or  to  conciliate  savage,  antipathies.  They 
were  often  brusque,  and  sometimes  rude  and  stern  in  their 
intercourse  with  the  red  race.  Many  of  the  English  fur 
traders,  too,  were  lawless  and  turbulent  ruffians,  who  plundered 
and  outraged  the  Indians  and  their  families. 

A  wide-spread  dissatisfaction  prevailed  in  the  forest  wig- 
wams. This  was  fanned  to  a  flame  by  the  arts  and  eloquence 
of  Pontiac,  who  sought  to  exterminate  the  English  and  restore 
the  supremacy  of  his  race.  With  the  wiles  of  a  Machiavelli, 
he  laid  a  deep  conspiracy  for  the  simultaneous  rising  of  all  the 
tribes  on  the  shores  of  the  Upper  Lakes,  in  the  Ohio  valley, 
and  on  the  borders  of  the  Virginia,  Maryland,  and  Pennsyl- 
vania settlements.  They  were  to  seize  the  forts,'  murder  the 
garrisons,  and  ravage  the  frontier. 

With  the  exception  of  Fort  Pitt,  the  fort  at  Detroit,  on  the 
beautiful  St.  Clair  River,  was  the  largest  and  most  important  in 
the  entire  West.  It  was  a  large  stockade,  within  the  limits  of 
the  present  city,  with  walls  twenty  feet  high,  enclosing  about 
eighty  houses.  Its  garrison  consisted  of  one  hundred  and 
twenty  soldiers  and  eight  officers,  under  the  command  of  Major 
Gladwyn ;  and  two  armed  vessels  lay  in  the  river.  Sixty  years 
before,  a  French  fort  and  settlement  had  been  planted  at  this 
favoured  spot,  whither  the  advantages  of  a  fertile  soil,  excellent 
fishing,  and  abundance  of  forest-game  had  attracted  a  French 
i:)opulation  of  about  six  or  seven  hundred  persons.  There  were 
also  in  the  vicinity  three  large  Indian  villages. 

Here  Pontiac  resolved  to  strike  the  first  blow  of  his  revolt, 
on  the  7th  of  May,  1763,  nearly  three  years  after  the  occu- 
pancy of  the  post  by  the  British.  The  plan  of  attack  had  been 
previously  arranged  at  a  forest  council  of  the  dusky  warriors. 
Pontiac,  with  sixty  of  his  bravest  followers,  was  to  obtain 
entrance  to  the  fort  under  the  pretext  of  smoking  the  -pipe  of 
peace.  Each  warrior  was  to  carry  beneath  his  blanket  his  gun, 
with  its  barrel  cut  off  short  so  as  to  admit  of  better  conceal- 
ment.    At  a  given  signal  they  were  to  fall  upon  the  garrison. 


BRITISH  RULE.  263 

and  open  the  gates  for  the  admission  of  their  tribesmen  prowl- 
ing without. 

A  3'oung  squaw,  through  the  influence,  it  is  said,  of  a  roman- 
tic attachment,  revealed  this  plot  to  ]\Iajor  Gladwyn,  the  com- 
mandant, and  the  garrison  was,  therefore,  on  the  guard.  As 
the  Indians,  the  next  day,  entered  the  fort,  they  beheld  the 
soldiers  drawn  up  under  arms,  with  fixed  bayonets.  As  Pon- 
tiac  began  his  speech,  the  clash  of  w^eapous,  and  roll  of  drums, 
announced  the  discovery  of  his  plot.  Yet  he  was  allowed  to 
retire  unharmed,  Gladwyn  being  incredulous  as  to  the  extent 
of  the  conspiracy,  and  unwilling  to  provoke  an  Indian  war. 
Two  days  later,  hundreds  of  yelling  savages  openly  attacked 
the  fort,  massacred  some  English  settlers  who  lived  beyond  its 
protection,  and  summoned  the  garrison  to  surrender. 

Pontiac  now  resolved  to  attempt  a  regular  blockade,  and 
proclaimed  that  *'  the  first  man  that  should  bring  provisions, 
or  anything  else  to  the  fort,  should  suffer  death."  lie  solicited 
also  the  assistance  of  the  French,  and  made  one  of  them  his 
secretary.  The  English,  however,  by  means  of  their  armed 
vessels,  commanded  the  river,  and  also  procured  provisions 
from  friendly  French  settlers.  For  fifteen  months  the  savages, 
about  seven  hundred  in  number,  closely  beleaguered  the  fort, — 
an  unexampled  siege  in  Indian  warfare,  —  defeating  successive 
forces  sent  to  its  relief.  To  obtain  food  for  his  warriors,  Pon- 
tiac levied  contributions  from  the  French,  and,  in  imitation  of 
Eiu'opean  finance,  issued  promissory  notes  drawn  upon  birch- 
bark,  and  signed  with  his  own  totem,  an  otter ;  all  of  which, 
on  their  maturing,  were  faithfully  redeemed. 

The  other  forts  throughout  the  West,  with  scarce  an  excep- 
tion, were  reduced  by  stratagem,  by  assault,  or  by  siege.  At 
Fort  Sandusky,  a  number  of  Indians,  under  the  guise  of 
friendship,  gained  admission,  massacred  the  garrison,  and  car- 
ried off  the  commandant  prisoner.  Such  also  was  the  fate  of 
the  unhappy  occupants  of  Fort  Joseph,  on  Lake  Michigan.  At 
Fort  ]\Iiami,  the  commandant  was  induced  to  visit  a  sick  squaw, 
and,  w^hile  engaged  in  his  errand  of  mercy,  was  treacherously 
shot  down,  and  the  little  garrison  surprised. 


2Q4:  HISTORY  OF  CANADA.] 

At  jMicliillimackiuac,  the  savages  engaged  before  the  fort  in 
an  anhiiated  contest  of  la  crosse  ;  an  exciting  game  of  strength 
and  skill,  in  "which  two  parties,  armed  with  raquets,  strive,  the 
one  to  force  a  ball  between  two  stakes  erected  in  the  field, 
while  the  other  endeavours  to  prevent  its  reaching  the  goal. 
The  soldiers  and  officers  lounged  around  the  gates  w^atching  the 
absorbing  game,  the  commandant  indulging  his  sporting  pro- 
pensity by  betting  on  its  result.  Squaws  strolled  unnoticed 
into  the  fort.  At  length,  a  well-directed  blow  tossed  the  ball 
within  the  gate.  As  the  Indians  rushed  after  it,  the  squaws 
gave  them  the  hatchets  which  they  had  kept  hidden  beneath 
their  blankets.  The  work  of  massacre  began.  The  garrison 
was  overpowered,  and  all  who  were  not  slain  were  made 
prisoners. 

At  Fort  Presqu'  Isle  twenty-seven  men,  after  an  heroic 
defence,  in  which  their  block-house  was  fired,  and  their  stockade 
undermined,  in  order  to  escape  massacre  surrendered  to  a 
force  of  two  hundred  savages  from  Pontiac's  camp  at  Detroit. 
From  Fort  Le  Beuf  the  garrison  escaped  to  the  w^oods  by 
night,  while  the  savages  thought  that  they  were  perishing  in 
the  flames.  At  Fort  Venango,  not  a  soul  survived  to  tell  the 
story  of  its  destruction.  Such  were  some  of  the  episodes  of 
the  bloody  conspiracy  of  the  Indian  tribes  under  the  influence 
of  this  forest  Mithridates. 

Meanwhile,  a  camp  of  three  thousand  Indians,  including  the 
families  of  the  warriors,  was  assembled  in  the  vicinity  of 
Detroit.  On  the  30th  of  May,  the  besieged  garrison  caught  a 
glimpse  of  hope.  A  fleet  of  English  boats  was  seen  gliding 
up  the  river,  containing,  it  was  believed,  long  expected  re-en- 
forcements from  Xiagara.  It  was  hailed  by  a  volley  from  the 
guns,  and  a  cheer  from  the  garrison,  but  the  answering  Indian 
yell  conveyed  the  dreadful  tidings  that  the  convoy  was  in  the 
hands  of  the  enemy.  Lieutenant  Cuyler,  with  a  force  of  nine- 
ty-six men,  with  an  abundant  supply  of  stores  and  ammunition, 
had  been  surprised  near  Point  Pelee  by  a  lurking  baud  of 
Pontiac's  wamors.  Sixty  were  killed  or  captured,  the  rest 
escaped. 


1 


BRITISH  RULE.  265 

A  month  later,  a  schooner  conveying  sixty  men,  arrived  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river,  and  fought  its  way  up  to  the  fort 
against  tenfold  odds.  On  the  29th  of  July,  the  besieged  gar- 
rison was  surprised  by  the  appearance  of  twenty-two  barges 
conveying  Captain  Dalzell,  late  aide-de-camp  to  General  Am- 
herst, with  a  re-enforcement  of  two  hundred  and  eighty  men, 
and  an  ample  store  of  ammunition.  They  had  made  their  way 
up  the  river  in  the  night,  and  so  escaped  detection  by  the 
enemy. 

It  was  now  resolved  to  strike  a  bold  blow  at  the  besiegers. 
Dalzell  urged  that  a  night  attack  should  be  made  on  Pontiac's 
camp.  Gladwyn  reluctantly  consented,  and,  at  two  o'clock  on 
the  morning  of  July  31,  a  force  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  men 
marched  out  of  the  fort,  and  took  the  road  along  the  riverside. 
Keen-eyed  Indian  scouts,  from  the  neighbouring  forest,  watched 
their  progress,  and  as  they  were  crossing  a  narrow  bridge, 
over  a  stream,  two  miles  from  the  fort,  which  ever  since  has 
borne  the  name  of  Bloody  Run,  a  murderous  fire  was  poured 
into  their  ranks  from  behind  a  breastwork  of  logs  among  the 
trees.  Amid  the  darkness  the  soldiers  were  thrown  into  con- 
fusion, and  only  escaped  being  surrounded  by  far  superior 
numbers  by  a  precipitate  retreat.  In  this  disastrous  affair, 
the  English  lost  sixty  men  in  killed  and  wounded,  among  them 
the  gallant  Dalzell  himself,  who  lost  his  life  in  endeavouring  to 
rescue  one  of  his  wounded  men.  The  Indian  camp  now 
increased  to  over  a  thousand  warriors,  but  the  garrison  was 
over  three  hundred  strong,  and  was  quite  able  to  keep  the 
besiegers  at  bay. 

The  schooner  *'  Gladwyn,"  with  a  crew  of  twelve  men,  return- 
ing with  stores  from  Niagara,  was  shortly  after  attacked  at 
night  by  three  hundred  and  fifty  savages.  After  a  desperate 
contest,  the  mate  called  out  to  blow  up  the  magazine.  Hearing 
this  alarming  order,  the  Indians,  who  were  swarming  on  her 
deck,  plunged  overboard,  and  the  vessel  escaped  with  the  loss 
of  two  of  its  crew. 

Nor  were  the  garrisoned  forts  alone  assailed  by  these  ruthless 
Indian  warriors.  They  waylaid  and  murdered  the  English 
34 


266  HISTORY  OF  CAXADA. 

trader  in  the  wilderness,  and  ravaged  the  entire  frontier  with 
fire  and  scalping-kuife.  They  swarmed  on  the  border  settle- 
ments, skulked  through  the  forests,  lay  in  wait  near  the  clear- 
ings, shooting  down  the  farmers  in  the  field,  scalping  the 
housewife  by  her  hearthstone,  tomahawking  the  babe  in  its 
cradle.     About  two  thousand,  it  is  estimated,  were  massacred. 

At  Fort  Pitt  was  a  garrison  of  three  hundred  and  thirty 
men,  under  the  command  of  Captain  Ecuyer,  a  brave  Swiss 
officer,  together  with  two  hundred  women  and  children. 
Towards  the  close  of  May  a  band  of  Indians  brought  three 
hundred  pounds'  worth  of  furs  to  the  fort  and  exchanged  them 
for  guns,  powder,  bullets,  and  scaliDiug-knives.  That  night 
arrived  intelligence  of  the  attack  on  the  English  posts.  The 
fort  was  speedily  put  in  a  condition  of  defence,  a  rude  engine 
was  constructed  to  extinguish  fires,  and  bullet-proof  chambers 
were  prepared  for  the  protection  of  the  women  and  children. 
It  was  soon  surrounded  by  hundreds  of  yelling  Indians,  who, 
burrowing  in  the  river-banks,  kept  up  an  incessant  fire  for 
days,  though  without  inflicting  serious  damage. 

On  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  Colonel  Bouquet  had  been  de- 
spatched from  Philadelphia  with  a  force  of  five  hundred  High- 
landers and  provincial  "  Eangers"  to  relieve  Fort  Pitt,  and 
strengthen  the  garrison  at  Detroit.  With  a  heavy  baggage- 
train,  conveying  powder,  flour,  and  provisions,  and  driving  a 
hundred  beeves,  and  twice  as  many  sheep,  the  expedition  toiled 
through  the  wilderness  and  over  the  Alleghany  Mountains. 
Before  reaching  the  frontier,  they  found  the  country  devastated 
by  a  cruel  foe.  They  passed  ruined  mills,  deserted  farms,  and 
fields  waving  with  ripened  grain,  but  without  a  hand  to  gather 
in  the  harvest.  At  length,  the  wagons  had  to  be  left  behind, 
and,  with  three  hundred  and  fifty  pack-horses,  laden  with  flour, 
the  little  army  jDressed  on  in  their  toilsome  journey. 

When  within  twenty-five  miles  of  Fort  Pitt,  near  a  stream 
named  Bushy  Eun,  the  Indians,  who  had  been  besieging  the 
fort,  formed  an  ambuscade  in  the  forest,  and  opened  a  deadly 
fire  on  Bouquet's  advance-guard.  The  Highlanders  gallantly 
charged  with  the  bayonet,  but  the  convoy  was  soon  surrounded 


BRITISH  RULE.  2G7 

by  hundreds  of  yelling  savages.  For  seven  long  hours  the 
conflict  raged,  till  the  approach  of  darkness  brought  it  to  a 
close.  That  night  the  English  lay  upon  their  arms  on  the 
scene  of  the  battle,  and,  with  the  earliest  light,  the  conflict  was 
renewed.  The  wounded  were  placed  in  the  centre,  and  pro- 
tected by  the  bags  of  flour,  while  the  soldiers  formed  a  circle 
around  them  and  the  horses.  From  dawn,  till  the  hot  sun  of 
August  rose  high  in  the  heavens,  that  devoted  band  presented 
an  unbroken  front  to  the  foe,  tortured  by  a  burning  thirst  more 
terrible  than  the  galling  fire  to  which  they  were  exposed.  The 
wounded  horses,  too,  broke  away  and  galloped  wildly  through 
the  ranks.  The  Indians,  meanwhile,  fired  from  behind  the 
trees,  and  made  occasional  rushes  to  break  the  circle,  but  fled 
before  the  charges  of  the  Highlanders  and  "  Kangers." 

In  order  to  avert  impending  destruction,  Bouquet  resorted 
to  stratagem.  He  ordered  two  companies  to  retire  on  the 
centre,  as  if  retreating.  The  Indians  hailed  the  movement 
with  fiendish  yells  as  a  sign  of  defeat,  and  made  a  rush  to  break 
the  circle.  The  retiring  companies,  meanwhile,  issued  unper- 
ceived  from  the  rear,  and  fell  with  terrific  onslaught  on  the 
flank  of  the  astonished  Indians.  With  a  rush  and  a  cheer,  the 
Highlanders  were  upon  them  with  the  bayonet,  and,  attacked 
in  front  and  flank,  they  were  utterly  routed,  leaving  sixty  slain 
upon  the  field.  In  the  two  days'  action,  the  loss  of  the  British 
was  one  hundred  and  twenty-three,  or  one-fourth  of  their  entire 
number.  Burning  what  stores  they  could  not  carry  ofi",  the 
victors  pressed  on  to  Fort  Pitt,  to  the  siege  of  which  their 
arrival  promptly  put  an  end. 

Even  within  the  limits  of  the  present  State  of  New  York, 
hostile  bands  of  Indians  ravaged  the  frontier  settlements.  On 
the  13th  of  September,  a  British  convoy  was  assailed  at 
"  Devil's  Hole,"  three  miles  below  Niagara  Falls,  and  of  eighty 
men,  seventy-two  fell  victims  to  the  scalping-knife. 

During  the  winter  the  siege  of  Detroit  was  not  vigorously 
pressed,  most  of  the  tribes  being  absent  on  hunting  expeditious  ; 
but  prowling  bands  still  lurked  in  the  neighbouring  i^s*. 
forest,  and  stragglers  from  the  fort,  with  scarcely  an  exception, 


268  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

paid  the  penalty  of  their  temerity  with  their  scalps.  With  the 
returning  spring,  several  tribes  came  back  to  press  the  siege. 
But  Pontiac,  despairing  of  success,  in  consequence  of  the  peace 
between  the  English  and  the  French,  retreated  in  chagrin  to  a 
camp  on  the  Maumee  River. 

Vigorous  efforts  were  now  made  by  the  British  to  put  an  end 
to  this  humiliating  and  destructive  Indian  war.  General  Gage, 
who  had  succeeded  Amherst  as  commander-in-chief,  ordered 
General  Bradstreet,  the  hero  of  Fort  Frontenac,  to  relieve 
Detroit,  and  to  re-garrison  the  western  forts  ;  and  Colonel  Bou- 
quet was  commanded  to  reduce  the  hostile  tribes  of  the  Ohio 
Valley. 

The  veteran  skill  of  Sir  William  Johnson  in  the  management 
of  the  Indians  was  still  more  eflS^cacious  in  bringing  about  a 
peace,  than  either  of  these  armed  demonstrations.  In  the 
month  of  July,  by  his  invitation,  no  less  than  two  thousand 
Indian  warriors  from  all  parts  of  the  great  West,  were  assem- 
bled beneath  the  guns  of  Fort  Niagara,  After  much  speech- 
making  and  interchange  of  wampum-belts,  a  separate  treaty 
of  peace  was  made  with  each  tribe,  and  the  delegates  were 
despatched  to  their  homes  laden  with  presents. 

General  Bradstreet,  with  a  force  of  twelve  hundred  soldiers, 
had,  in  the  meantime,  advanced  from  Albany,  by  way  of 
Oswego,  and,  with  the  addition  of  a  number  of  armed  Cana- 
dians, proceeded  to  relieve  the  garrison  of  Detroit.  At 
Presqu'  Isle,  he  received  a  sham  embassy  from  the  Shaw- 
nees  and  Delawares,  and  credulously  made  a  treaty  with 
them,  while  their  warriors  were  still  murdering  and  scalp- 
ing on  the  Pennsylvanian  frontiers.  On  the  26th  of 
August,  he  reached  Detroit,  and  was  received  with  delight 
by  the  garrison,  which  had  endured  the  unparalleled  Indian 
siege  of  fifteen  months.  A  treaty  of  peace  was  made  with 
the  neighbouring  tribes  on  their  complete  submission,  and  a 
force  was  sent  to  re-garrison  Fort  Michillimackinac. 

General  Bradstreet  now  returned  to  Canada,  refusing  to  co- 
operate with  Colonel  Bouquet,  believing  that  he  had  concluded 
a  permanent  peace  with  the  hostile  tribes  of  the  Ohio  Valley. 


BRITISH  RULE.  2G9 

The  gallant  Bouquet,  however,  better  understood  the  deceit  of 
Indian  nature.  With  a  force  of  fifteen  hundred  regular  sol- 
diers and  backwoods  fighters,  he  marched  boldly  west  from 
Fort  Pitt,  and  dictated  terms  of  peace  in  the  very  heart  of  the 
territory  occupied  by  the  revolting  tribes.  He  also  rescued 
several  hundreds  of  white  prisoners  from  their  cruel  captors, 
and  restored  them,  amid  scenes  of  touching  pathos  and  rejoic- 
mg,  to  their  anxious  friends.  Husbands  and  wives,  parents 
and  children,  who  had  been  long  separated,  were  now  given 
back  to  each  other's  embrace.  In  not  a  few  instances,  tender 
ties  had  been  formed  in  the  forest  wigwams,  where  the  captives 
had  been  adopted  or  married  into  Indian  families,  which  were 
not  broken  without  a  pang. 

Pontiac  subsequently  endeavoured  to  stir  up  the  Indian  hordes 
in  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi  against  the  English,  for  this 
purpose  sending  envoys  to  the  numerous  tribes  upon  that 
mighty  stream.  The  growing  ascendency  of  the  British 
throughout  the  great  West,  however,  rendered  this  attempt 
abortive.  Pontiac  himself,  at  length,  submitted  to  English 
rule,  and,  a  few  years  later,  was  killed  near  St.  Louis,  while 
drunk,  by  an  Illinois  Indian. 

After  the  Peace  of  Paris,  signed  February  10,  1763,  Canada 
was  formally  annexed  to  the  British  possessions  by  royal  proc- 
lamation. British  subjects  were  invited  to  settle  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Quebec  by  the  promise  of  the  protection  of  British 
laws,  and  of  the  establishment,  as  soon  as  the  circumstances  of 
the  country  would  admit,  of  representative  institutions.  Liberal 
land  grants  were  also  made  to  military  settlers.  These  grants 
ranged  from  five  thousand  to  fifty  acres,  varying  with  the  rank 
of  the  grantee,  from  field  oflicers  down  to  private  soldiers. 
After  ten  years'  occupation,  they  were  to  be  subject  to  "  quit- 
rents  "  —  a  small  annual  tax,  the  payment  of  which  exempted 
the  landholder  from  all  other  service.  This  payment  was  not, 
however,  rigidly  enforced,  and,  in  many  places,  fell  into  desue- 
tude. The  proposed  collection  of  accumulated  arrears  in  later 
times  was  a  cause  of  great  discontent.  A  civil  government, 
consisting  of  Governor  and  council,  was  formed,  and  courts 


270  BISTORT  OF  CANADA. 

were  established  for  the  administration  of  justice  in  accordance 
with  the  laws  of  England.  The  printing-press  —  that  palladium 
of  free  institutions  —  was  first  introduced  in  Canada  in  1764, 
and  on  the  21st  of  June,  the  first  number  of  the  *'  Quebec 
Gazette,"  which  is  still  published,  made  its  appearance.* 

The  "  new  subjects,"  as  the  French  were  called,  soon  found 
themselves  placed  at  a  disadvantage,  as  compared  with  the 
British  settlers,  or  «'oId  subjects."  The  latter,  although  as 
regards  numbers,  an  insignificant  minority, —  less  than  five  hun- 
dred in  all,  chiefly  half-pay  officers,  disbanded  soldiers,  and 
merchants, —  assumed  all  the  prerogatives  of  a  dominant  race, 
engrossing  the  public  offices  to  the  exclusion  of  the  sons  of  the 
soil.  The  terms  of  the  proclamation  were  interpreted,  like  the 
law  of  England  for  sixty-five  years  later,  as  excluding  Roman 
Catholics  from  all  offices  in  the  gift  of  the  state.  The  French 
were  willing  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  King  George,  but 
even  for  the  sake  of  public  employment  would  not  forswear 
their  religion. 

The  British  privilege  of  trial  by  jury,  that  safeguard  of 
popular  liberty,  was  little  appreciated,  accompanied  as  it  was 
by  increased  expense  and  by  the  inconvenience  of  being 
conducted  in  an  unknown  language.  The  simple  hahitans 
preferred  the  direct  decision  of  the  judge  in  accordance  with 
their  ancient  customs. 

General  Murray,  by  his  conciliatory  and  equitable  treatment 
of  the  conquered  race,  as  far  as  possible  within  the  limits  above 
indicated,  evoked  the  jealousy  and  complaint  of  the  English 
place-hunters,  many  of  whom  were  thoroughly  mercenary  and 
corrupt.  Complaints  of  his  administration  were  sent  to  Eng- 
land, accompanied  by  petitions  for  his  recall.  His  policy  was 
approved,  however,  by  the  Home  Government,  and  he  received 
substantial  preferment. 

Sir  Guy  Carleton  was  appointed  the  successor  of  General 
Murray,  and  proved  himself  the  protector  and  friend  of  the 

*  It  Tvaa  established  by  William  Brown  and  Thomas  Gilmore,  of  Philadel- 
phia, -whose  names  deserve  honourable  mention  as  the  pioneers  of  journalism 
in  Canada. 


BRITISH  RULE.  271 

conquered  colonists.  In  the  administration  of  justice,  which 
was  the  ground  of  much  controversy,  a  compromise  was 
effected.  In  criminal  cases,  trial  by  jury  and  English  forms 
were  observed.  In  civil  cases  —  those  affecting  property  and 
inheritance  —  the  old  French  laws  and  procedures  were  allowed 
to  prevail.  The  English  settlers,  however,  objected  strenu- 
ously to  several  features  of  the  land  laws.  The  feudal  tefiure, 
by  which,  on  every  transfer  of  real  estate,  one-twelfth  of  the 
purchase  money  must  be  paid  to  the  seigneur  within  whose 
seigneury  the  land  lay,  was  especially  obnoxious.  This  was  a 
heavy  tax  on  all  improvements,  buildings,  and  the  like,  and 
greatly  discouraged  the  growth  of  towns,  and  drainage  of  land 
or  other  modes  of  increasing  its  value.  The  French  also 
opposed  the  registration  of  deeds,  either  from  ignorant  apathy, 
or  on  account  of  the,  as  they  conceived,  needless  expense. 
Consequently  British  land  purchasers  or  mortgagees  sometimes 
found  themselves  defrauded  by  previous  mortgages,  to  which 
the  French  law  permitted  a  sworn  secrecy.  Notwithstanding 
these  and  other  anomalies,  the  country  entered  on  a  career  of 
prosperity,  and  began  to  increase  in  population,  agricultural 
and  commercial. 

At  length,  after  long  delay,  in  1774,  as  a  definite  settlement 
of  the  government  of  the  colony,  the  Quebec  Act  was  passed 
by  the  British  parliament.  It  extended  the  bounds  of  the 
province  from  Labrador  to  the  Mississippi,  from  the  Ohio  to 
the  watershed  of  Hudson's  Bay.  It  established  the  right  of  the 
French  to  the  observance  of  the  Roman  Catholic  religion,  with- 
out civil  disability,  and  confirmed  the  tithes  to  the  clergy, 
exempting,  however,  Protestants  from  their  jDayment.  It 
restored  the  French  civil  code,  and  established  the  English 
administration  of  law  in  criminal  cases.  Supreme  authority 
was  vested  in  the  Governor  and  a  council  of  from  seventeen  to 
twenty-three  members,  the  latter  being  nominated  by  the  crown, 
and  consisting,  for  the  most  part,  of  persons  of  British  birth. 

The  English-speaking  minority  felt  that  their  rights  were 
sacrificed.  They  were  denied  the  promised  elective  Assembly, 
deprived  of  the  protection  of  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act,  and,  in 


272  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

certain  cases,  of  trial  by  jury ;  and  were  subjected  to  the  civil 
code,  and  held  their  property  under  the  ill-understood  laws  of 
a  foreign  country.  Fox,  Burke,  Chatham  and  Townshend  pro- 
tested against  the  injustice  in  the  Imperial  parliament.  Chat- 
ham rose  from  his  sick-bed  to  denounce  it  in  the  House  of 
Lords.  *'  It  is  an  Act,"  he  said,  "  that  tears  up  justice  by  the 
roots,  destroys  the  liberty  that  ought  to  be  the  foundation  of 
every  constitution,  and  that  will  soon  lose  His  Majesty  the 
hearts  of  all  his  American  subjects."  The  merchants  and  Com- 
mon Council  of  the  city  of  London,  always  the  champions  of 
popular  liberty,  petitioned  against  the  bill,  but  the  King  gave  it 
his  sanction,  declaring  that  "  it  was  founded  on  the  clearest 
principles  of  justice  and  humanity,  and  would,  he  doubted  not, 
have  the  best  effect  in  quieting  the  minds  and  promoting  the 
happiness  of  his  Canadian  subjects." 

The  American  colonies  complained  bitterly  at  the  transfer  to 
Canada  of  the  country  north  and  west  of  the  Ohio,  for  which 
they  had  so  long  and  valorously  struggled.  "  You  have  given 
up,"  said  Thomas  Townshend,  their  mouthpiece  in  the  British 
Parliament,  "  almost  all  the  country  which  was  the  subject  of 
dispute,  and  for  which  we  went  to  war ;  extending,  in  the 
words  of  the  bill,  southward  to  the  Ohio,  westward  to  the 
Mississippi,  and  northward  to  the  territory  granted  to  the  Hud- 
son's Bay  Company."  The  Protestant  clergy,  especially,  took 
great  offence  at  the  provisions  in  favour  of  the  Eoman  Catholic 
religion,  and  many  of  them  were  led  to  lend  their  influence  in 
favour  of  the  impending  American  Eevolution.  The  Act,  how- 
ever, was  received  with  delight  by  the  French  population,  and 
continued  for  seventeen  years  the  rule  of  government  of  the 
province. 


THE  REVOLUTLONART   WAR.  273 


CHAPTER  XX.  ^    . 

THE    REVOLUTIONARY    WAR. 

Canscs  of  tlio  American  Revolution  —  The  Stamp  Duties  —  The  "Boston  Tea 
Party,"  1773  —  Coucord,  Lexington,  Ticonderoga,  and  Bunker  Hill,  1775  — 
AiHorican  Invasion  of  Canada  —  Capture  of  Forts  Chambly  and  St.  John  — 
Montgomery  Occupies  Montreal  —  Arnold's  Wilderness  Raid  —  Ineffective 
Siege  of  Quebec  —  Death  of  Montgomery  —  Defeat  of  Arnold  —  American 
Invasion  Repulsed  —  Declaration  of  Independence,  1776  —  Burgoyne's  Ad- 
vance from  Canada  and  Surrender  at  Saratoga,  1777  ^  Governor  Carleton 
Resigns  —  Is  Succeeded  by  General  Haldimand,  1779  —  Recognition  of  Amer- 
ican Independence —  The  Peace  of  Versailles  (1783)  makes  the  Great  Lakes 
the  Western  Boundary  of  Canada  —  Tlie  United  Empire  Loyalists  seek 
Homes  in  the  British  Provinces. 

TILE  general  jiolicy  of  Great  Britain  toward  her  American 
colonies  was  one  of  commercial  repression.  The  Navi- 
gation Laws  (passed  1651  by  the  Commonwealth,  confii-med  by- 
Charles  11.,  1660),  prohibited  the  exportation  from  the  crown 
colonies  of  certain  products,  except  to  Great  Britain  and  in 
British  ships ;  or  the  conveyance  of  any  products  of  Asia, 
Africa  or  America  to  any  port  in  Great  Britain,  except  in  Brit- 
ish ships,  or  in  ships  of  the  country  of  which  the  goods  were 
the  product.  American  merchants  were,  therefore,  precluded 
by  law  from  the  direct  importation  of  sugar,  tea,  spices,  cotton, 
and  similar  foreign  products.  These  were  required  first  to  be 
shipped  to  Great  Britain,  and  then  to  be  re-shipped  to  America 
at  greatly  increased  cost  and  delay.  The  colonial  traders 
largely  disregarded  this  prohibition,  and  grew  rich  by  smug- 
gling, which  acquired  in  time  a  sort  of  toleration.  With  the 
growth  of  American  commerce.  Imperial  jealousy  was  aroused. 
The  colonial  vessels  were  seized  and  the  contraband  goods 
confiscated  by  British  ships  or  by  the  officers  of  His  Majesty's 
customs.  These  confiscations  sometimes  took  place  with  little 
ceremony,  if  not  with  violence  ;  and  it  not  unfrequently  hap- 
pened that  serious  riots  occurred.  The  manufacture  of  certain 
35 


274  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

materials,  as  "wool  and  iron,  was  also,  in  defiance,  it  was  felt, 
of  natural  rights,  prohibited  in  the  colonies.  The  oligarchical 
power  of  the  crown  officials,  and  the  offensive  assumptions  of 
the  Church  established  by  law,  moreover,  gave  deep  offence  to 
the  democratic  conmiunities  of  the  American  colonies. 

In  order  to  meet  the  colonial  military  ex|)enditure,  a  stamp 
duty  was  imposed  on  all  legal  documents.  The  colonists  denied 
the  right  of  the  Imperial  Parliament  to  impose  taxes  without 
their  consent.  The  Stamp  Act  was  repealed  m  a  year,  but  the 
obnoxious  principle  of  taxation  without  representation  was 
maintained  by  a  light  duty  on  tea,  and  some  other  articles.* 
The  colonists  refused  to  receive  the  taxed  commodities,  and  a 
party  of  men,  disguised  as  Indians,  threw  into  Boston  harbour 
(December  16,  1773),  the  tea  on  board  the  East  India  vessels, 
amounting  to  three  hundred  and  forty  chests.  Parliament,  in- 
censed at  this  "  flat  rebellion,"  closed  the  port  of  Boston,  and, 
against  the  protest  and  warning  of  some  of  England's  greatest 
statesmen,  sent  troops  to  enforce  submission. 

A  Continental  Congress  was  convened  at  Philadelphia  (Sep- 
tember, 1774),  which  petitioned  the  King,  but  in  vain,  for  the 
continuance  of  the  colonial  Hberties.  The  creation,  by  the 
Quebec  Act,  of  a  great  Northern  province,  whose  government 
was  administered  by  agents  responsible  only  to  the  crown,  was 
regarded  as  fraught  with  peril  to  the  interests  of  the  older 
colonies.  It  was  hoped  that  the  disaffection  among  the  British 
population  of  Canada,  and,  perhaps,  a  desire  on  the  part  of  the 
French  to  avenge  the  wrongs  of  the  conquest,  would  induce 
not  a  few  of  the  people  of  Canada  to  joint  the  revolt  against 
Great  Britain.  Circular  letters  were,  therefore,  sent  to  Canada 
and  Nova  Scotia,  inviting  the  inhabitants  to  send  delegates  to 
the  Continental  Congress,  at  Philadelphia. 

Meanwhile,  at  Concord  and  Lexington  (April  19,  1775), 
occurred  the  collision  between  the  armed  colonists  and  the 
soldiers  of  the  King,  which  precipitated  the  "War  of  Independ- 
ence, and  the  loss  to  Great  Britain  of  her  American  colonies. 

*  The  duty  on  tea  was  tlireepence  per  pound,  —  one-fourth  of  that  paid  in 
England. 


THE  REVOLUTIONARY  WAR.  275 

From  the  mountains  of  Vermont  to  the  everglades  of  Georgia, 
a  patriotic  enthusiasm  burst  forth.  A  continental  army  was 
organized.  General  Gage  was  besieged  in  Boston.  A  small 
force  was  collected  in  Vermont  for  the  capture  of  Fort  Ticon- 
deroga.  On  the  night  of  May  9,  it  crossed  Lake  Champlain, 
and,  at  dawn,  next  morning,  eighty-three  men  surprised  and 
captured,  without  a  blow,  the  fort  which  had  cost  Great  Britain 
eight  millions  sterling,  two  great  campaigns,  and  a  multitude  of 
precious  lives  to  win.  Crown  Point,  with  its  slender  garrison 
of  twelve  men,  surrendered  at  the  first  summons,  and  thus  the 
*' gateway  of  Canada"  was  in  the  hands  of  the  insurgent  colon- 
ists. A  few  weeks  later,  at  Bunker  Hill  (June  17,  1775),  the 
colonial  volunteers  proved  their  ability  to  cope  with  the  veteran 
troops  of  England.  Five  hundred  of  the  former,  and  a  thou- 
sand of  the  latter,  lay  dead  or  wounded  on  the  fatal  slope. 

General  Carleton  resolved  to  recover,  if  possible.  Crown 
Point  and  Ticonderoga.  He  called  upon  the  seigneurs  to  enroll 
their  tenants  or  censitaires,  in  accordance  with  the  terms  of  the 
feudal  tenure  by  which  they  held  their  lands.  Many  of  the 
seigneurs  responded  promptly  to  this  appeal,  but  the  tenantry, 
who  had  not  forgotten  the  hardships  of  the  late  war,  denied 
their  liability  to  military  service.  The  Governor,  who  had 
scarcely  eight  hundred  regular  soldiers  at  his  command  for  the 
protection  of  the  province,  declared  martial  law  to  be  in  force, 
and  endeavoured  to  call  out  the  militia  by  proclamation.  But 
even  this  appeal,  backed  up  as  it  was  by  the  mandate  of 
Bishop  De  Briand,  exhorting  the  people  to  take  up  arms,  was 
ineffectual. 

The  American  Congress  now  resolved  on  the  invasion  of 
Canada,  believing  that  the  revolted  colonists  had  many  sympa- 
thizers in  the  country,  who  were  only  waiting  for  the  presence 
of  an  armed  force  to  declare  in  favour  of  the  Revolution. 

In  the  month  of  September,  a  colonial  force  of  a  thousand 
men,  under  General  Schuyler,  advanced  by  way  of  Lake  Cham- 
plain  against  Montreal ;  and  another,  under  Colonel  Arnold,  by 
way  of  the  Kennebec  and  Chaudiere,  against  Quebec.  Gov- 
ernor Carleton  still  endeavoured,  but  at  first  with  only  very 


276  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

partial  success,  to  enlist  the  co-operation  of  the  French  for  the 
defence  of  the  country.  They  were  not,  indeed,  seduced  from 
their  allegiance  by  the  blandishments  of  the  revolted  colonies  ; 
but,  for  the  most  j)ai't,  they  continued  apathetic,  till  their 
homes  were  in  danger.  Some  of  the  Canadians,  however, 
both  French  and  English,  sympathized  with  the  invaders,  and 
gave  them  both  passive  and  active  assistance. 

While  Schuyler  was  held  in  check  at  Fort  St.  John,  on  the 
Richelieu,  Colonel  Ethan  Allen,  with  some  three  hundred  men, 
advanced  to  Montreal.  Taking  possession  of  some  barns  and 
houses  near  the  town,  he  was  attacked  by  General  Carleton, 
with  a  force  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  local  militia,  and  some 
thirty  regulars.  Allen  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner,  and 
sent  in  irons  to  England.  Colonel  Eichard 
Montgomery,  a  brave  and  generous  Irish 
gentleman,  had  succeeded  to  Schuyler's 
command.  lie  vigorously  urged  the  siege 
of  Forts  St.  John  and  Chambly.  The 
latter  ingloriously  surrendered  to  two  hun- 
dred Americans,  after  a  siege  of  a  day  and 
a  half.  The  prisoners,  one  hundred  and 
EICHARD  MONTGOMERY,  gixty-eight  \i\  uumbcr,  were  sent  to  Con- 
necticut. The  capture  of  seventeen  cannon,  and  six  tons  of 
powder,  was  of  immense  advantage  to  Montgomery,  enabling 
him  to  press  with  greater  vigour  the  siege  of  Fort  St.  John. 

Meanwhile,  General  Carleton,  by  great  efforts,  got  together 
about  eight  hundred  Canadians,  regulars,  and  Indians,  for  the 
relief  of  the  beleaguered  garrison  of  Fort  St.  John.  On  the 
31st  of  October,  he  attempted,  in  thirty-four  boats,  to  cross 
the  St.  Lawrence  from  Montreal,  in  order  to  effect  a  junction 
with  Colonel  Maclean  at  Sorel.  As  they  approached  Longueuil, 
an  American  force  of  three  hundred  men,  with  two  field-guns, 
opened  fire  on  the  boats  so  vigorously  that  Carleton  was  com- 
pelled to  return  to  Montreal.  The  commandant  at  Fort  St. 
John,  despairing  of  relief,  and  short  of  both  provisions  and 
ammunition,  surrendered,  after  a  siege  of  fiifty  days,  with  a 
garrison  of  five  hundred  regulars  and  Canadian  militia. 


THE  REVOLUTIONARY  WAR. 


The  greater  part  of  the  regular  troops  in  the  province  had 
now  been  captured,  and  ]Montgomery  advanced  unopposed  to 
Montreal.  Governor  Carleton. and  Brigadier-General  Prescott, 
after  destroying  the  military  stores,  escaped  with  a  hundred  and 
twenty  men,  just  in  time  to  avoid  capture.  On  the  12th  of 
Xovember,  Montgomery  occupied  the  town,  and  gained  the. 
good-will  of  the  people  by  his  generous  disposition  and  affable 
manners. 

Brigadier-General  Prescott,  and  his  command,  were  inter- 
cepted at  Sorel  by  a  force  of  Americans,  with  an  armed  vessel 
and  some  floating  batteries.  Carleton  escaped  only  by  being 
rowed,  with  muflled  oars,  by  night,  past  the  American  guards  ; 
and  so  reached  Quebec,  which  was  now  menaced  b}^  Benedict 
Arnold.  That  officer,  who  subsequently  gained  eternal  infamy 
by  the  base  attempt  to  l^etray  the 
fortress  of  West  Point,  com- 
mitted to  his  keeping,  had  pre- 
viously visited  Quebec,  and  had 
secret  correspondents  among  its 
inhabitants.  In  the  month  of 
September,  with  a  force  of 
nearly  a  thousand  men,  among 
whom  was  Aaron  Burr,  a  future 
Yice-President  of  the  United 
States,  he  had  toiled  up  the  swift 
current  of  the  Kennebec  and 
Dead  Eiver,  to  the  head-waters 
of  those  streams.  "With  incred- 
ible labour  they  conveyed  their 
boats  and  stores  through  the  tangled  wilderness  to  the  Chau- 
diere,  and  sailed  down  its  tumultuous  current  to  the  St.  Law- 
rence. Their  sufferings  through  hunger,  cold,  fatigue,  and 
exposure,  were  excessive.  They  were  reduced  to  eat  the  flesh 
of  dogs,  and  even  to  gnaw  the  leather  of  their  cartouch-boxes 
and  shoes.  Their  barges  had  to  be  dragged  against  the  rapid 
stream  one  hundred  and  eighty  miles,  and  carried  forty  miles 
over  rugged  f)ortages  on  men's  shoulders.     Their  number  was 


^^V'  ^ 


BENEDICT  ABNOIiB. 


278  HISTORY  OF  CAXADA. 

reduced,  by  sickness,  exhaustion  and  desertion,  to  seven  hun- 
dred men  before  they  reached  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  only  six 
hundred  were  fit  for  military  service.  Without  artillery,  with 
damaged  guns  and  scanty  ammunition,  with  wretched  clothing 
and  imperfect  commissariat,  they  were  to  attempt  the  capture 
of  the  strongest  fortress  in  America. 

The  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Quebec,  the 
Hon.  H.  T.  Cramahe,  had  strengthened  the  de- 
fences of  the  fortress  capital,  and  learning  the 
approach  of  Arnold,  had  carefully  removed  all 
the  boats  from  the  south  side  of  the  river.  On 
the  night  of  November  the  13th,  Arnold,  having 
constructed  a  number  of  canoes,  conveyed  the 
bulk  of  his  meagre  army  across  the  river,  and, 
WALLS  OF  QUEBEC.*  ^ylthout  oppositlou,  climbcd  the  cliff  by  Wolfe's 
jDath,  and  appeared  before  the  walls  of  the  upper  town.  He 
sent  a  flag  of  truce  to  demand  the  surrender  of  the  place  ;  but 
the  flag  was  not  received,  and  no  answer  to  the  summons  was 
deigned.  Having  failed  to  surprise  the  town,  and  despairing, 
with  his  footsore  and  ragged  regiments,  with  no  artillery,  and 
with  only  five  rounds  of  ammunition,  of  taking  it  by  assault, 
he  retired  to  Poiut-aux-Trembles,  some  twenty  miles  up  the 
river,  to  await  a  junction  with  Montgomery. 

On  the  19th  of  the  month,  Governor  Carleton  reached 
Quebec,  and  began  preparations  for  a  vigorous  resistance.  Dis- 
affected persons,  and  those  unwilling  to  join  in  the  defence  of 
the  town,  were  ordered  to  leave  within  four  days.  The  entire 
population  was  about  five  thousand,  and  the  garrison  numbered 
eighteen  hundred  in  all,  consisting  of  about  a  thousand  British 
and  Canadian  militia,  three  hundred  regulars,  and  a  body  of 
seamen  and  marines  from  the  ships  in  the  harbour.  The  place 
was  provisioned  for  eight  months. 

• 
*  References. — A.    The  St.  Charles  River. 
B.    The  St.  Lawrence. 

a.  Wolfe  and  Montcalm's  Monnment. 

b.  Place  where  Montgomery  fell.     (Shown  also  in  cut  on  page  279.) 

c.  Place  where  Arnold  was  defeated. 


THE  REVOLUTIONARY   WAR. 


279 


On  the  4th  of  December,  the  united  forces  of  Arnold  and 
Montgomery,  amounting  to  about  twelve  hundred  in  all, 
advanced  against  Quebec.  Carleton  refused  to  hold  any  com- 
munication with  them,  and  the  besieging  army  encamped  in  the 
snow  before  the  walls.  Its  scanty  artillery  produced  no  effect 
upon  the  impregnable  ramparts.  Biting  frost,  the  fire  of  the 
garrison,  pleurisy,  and  the  small-pox  did  their  fatal  work.  The 
only  hope  of  success  was  by  assault,  which  must  be  made  before 
the  close  of  the  year,  when  the  period  of  service  of  many  of 
the  men  expired. 

On  the  last  day  of 
the  year,  therefore, 
a  double  attack  was 
made  on  the  lower 
town,  the  object  of 
which  was   to   effect  a 
junction  of  forces,  and 
then  to  storm  the  upper 
town.    At  four  o'clock  in  the 
morning,  in  a  blinding  snow- 
storm,    Montgomery,     with 
five     hundred     men,     crept 
along  the   narrow   pass   be- 
tween Cape  Diamond  and  the 
river.    The  western  approach  to  the 
town  was  defended  by  a  block-house 
and  a  battery.     As  the  forlorn  hope 
made  a  dash  for  the  barrier,  a  volley 
of  grape  swept  through  their  ranks. 
Montgomery,  with  two  of  his  oiS- 
cers  and  ten  men,  were  slain.     The 
deepening  snow  wrapped  them  in  its  icy 
comrades  retreated  in  utter  discomfiture. 

On  the  other  side  of  the  town,  Arnold,  with  six  hundred 
men,  attacked  and  carried  the  first  barriers.  The  alarum  bells 
rang,  the  drums  beat  to  arms,  the  garrison  rallied  to  the  defence. 
The  assaulting  party  pressed  on,  and  many  entered  the  town 


FACE  OF  CITADEL  CLIFF,  QUEBEC. 


shroud,  while  their 


280  HISTORY   OF  CANADA. 

through  the  embrasures  of  a  battery,  and  waged  a  stub])orn 
fight  in  the  narrow  streets,  amid  the  storm  and  darkness.  AYith 
the  dawn  of  morning,  they  found  themselves  surrounded  by  an 
overwhelming  force,  and  exposed  to  a  withering  fire  from  the 
houses.  They  therefore  surrendered  at  discretion,  to  the 
number  of  four  hundred  men. 

Arnold  continued  during  the  winter  to  maintain  an  inefiective 
siege,  his  command  daily  wasting  away  with  small-pox,  cold, 
1776.  and  hunger.  A  party  of  three  hundred  and  fifty  loyal 
Canadians,  under  M.  de  Beaujeu,  attacked  his  lines,  but  was 
repulsed  with  loss.  The  sympathy  of  the  hahita^is  was 
estranged  by  the  military  oppression  and  usurpation  of  the 
American  "  liberators."  They  were  forced  to  part  with  their 
produce  for  bills  of  credit,  which  were  uncurrent  in  the  country, 
and  their  religious  feelings  were  ofiended  by  the  Protestant 
antiiDathies  of  the  New  England  militia.  Scanty  re-enforcements 
of  the  besieging  army  continued  to  arrive,  till  it  numbered 
about  two  thousand  men. 

In  April,  the  American  Congress  ordered  that  a  strong  force 
with  an  ample  supply  of  materiel  of  war,  should  be  raised  for 
the  conquest  of  Canada  ;  and  Major-General  Thomas,  of  Massa- 
chusetts, was  despatched  to  take  command  of  the  army  before 
Quebec.  This  energy,  however,  was  manifested  too  late. 
Thomas  arrived  on  the  1st  of  May,  and  found  nearly  half  of 
the  American  force  sick  with  small-pox,  the  magazines  almost 
empty,  and  only  six  days'  provisions  in  camp.  The  French 
sympathizers  with  the  Americans,  moreover,  had  become  dis- 
afiected,  and  supplies  were  obtainable  only  with  great  difficulty. 
General  Thomas  decided  on  an  immediate  retreat  to  Three 
Elvers.  The  next  day  British  ships  arrived  in  the  harbour,  and 
before  he  could  move  his  invaUd  army,  the  garrison  of  Quebec 
issued  from  the  gates,  a  thousand  strong,  and  fell  upon  his  camp. 
The  Americans  fled  precipitately,  leaving  guns,  stores,  pro- 
visions, and  even  their  sick  behind.  The  latter  were  humanely 
treated  by  Carleton,  but  many  of  the  French  insurgents  paid 
the  penalty  of  their  revolt  by  the  confiscation  or  destruction  of 
their  property.     General  Thomas,  with  his  command,  retreated 


THE  REVOLUTIONARY  WAR.  281 

amid  great  hardships  to  Sorel,  where  he  soon  died  of  small- 
pox, and  was  succeeded  by  General  Sullivan.  So  ended  the 
fifth  and  last  siege  of  the  rock-built  fortress  of  Quebec. 

Meanwhile,  three  American  Commissioners,  Benjamin  Frank- 
lin, Samuel  Chase,  and  Charles  Carroll,  came  to  Montreal  to 
urge  the  Canadians  to  join  the  revolted  colonies  against  Great 
Britain.  John  Carroll,  a  brother  of  Charles,  a  Jesuit,  w^ho 
subsequently  became  Archbishop  of  Baltimore,  also  came,  to 
exert  his  influence  as  an  ecclesiastic  with  the  Canadian  clergy  in 
promoting  this  object.  Without  the  aid  of  a  large  army  and  an 
abundance  of  "hard  money,"  neither  of  which  Congress  could 
command,  it  was  found  that  the  Canadians  would  take  little  part 
in  continuing  the  war. 

An  American  force  of  three  hundred  and  ninety  men  had 
occupied  a  stockade  at  the  Cedar  Eapids,  fort^'-five  miles  above 
Montreal,  in  order  to  intercept  a  body  of  British  troops  and 
Indians,  who  were  known  to  be  descending  the  river.  They 
were  themselves  attacked  by  an  Inferior  British  force  under 
Captain  Forster,  and  surrendered  the  stockade.  The  next  day, 
a  hundred  and  forty  Americans,  coming  to  the  relief,  were 
surprised  by  a  number  of  Indians  and  Canadians,  and  made 
prisoners,  not  without  the  infliction  of  unwarranted  cruelties 
by  the  savages.  Captain  Forster  advanced  with  his  prisoners 
toward  Montreal,  but  learning  that  Arnold  was  about  to  attack 
him  with  seven  hundred  men,  he  made  hasty  dispositions  for 
defence,  and  offered  such  an  efiective  resistance,  that  his 
antagonist  was  compelled  to  retreat.  An  exchange  of  prisoners 
to  the  number  of  nearly  five  hundred  was  efiected  between  the 
belligerents. 

In  the  month  of  June,  an  army  of  nearly  ten  thousand  men, 
under  Major-General  Burgoyne,  arrived  at  Quebec  ;  and  Briga- 
dier-General Frazer,  with  twenty-five  transports,  at  once  pro- 
ceeded as  far  as  Three  Rivers,  which  was  threatened  by  a  force 
of  fifteen  hundred  American  militia-men.  Frazer's  troops  landed 
and  completely  routed  the  enemy,  making  some  two  hundred 
prisoners.  Sullivan,  the  American  general,  now  withdrew  his 
disorganized  and  plague-smitten  army  from  Sorel  to  Isle-aux- 


282  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

Noix,  and  soon  after  to  Crown  Point,  whither  he  was  shortly 
followed  by  Arnold  from  Montreal.  Thus  ended  in  disaster 
and  defeat  the  invasion  of  Canada  during  the  Revolutionary 
War. 

Governor  Carleton  now  took  active  measures  for  the  creation 
of  a  fleet  of  al^out  twenty  vessels,  besides  many  transports,  on 
Lake  Champlain,  the  materials  for  which  had  been  brought  in 
part  from  England,  and  with  infinite  toil  transported  to  the 
place  of  launching.  The  Americans  also  constructed  a  fleet, 
but  one  much  inferior  in  size  and  equipment  to  that  of  their 
antagonists.  In  a  severe  engagement  near  Crown  Point  (Oc- 
tober 19),  Arnold  was  badly  beaten,  and,  to  avoid  surrender, 
beached  those  of  his  vessels  that  remained  uncaptured,  and  set 
them  on  fire.  The  British  now  controlled  the  lake,  and  the 
Americans  concentrated  their  strength  at  Ticonderoga. 

Meanwhile  the  revolted  colonies  had  thrown  off  their 
allegiance  to  the  mother  country  by  the  celebrated  Declaration 
of  Independence,  which  was  solemnly  adopted  by  the  Con- 
tinental Congress,  July  4,  1776.  The  British  had  already  been 
obliged  to  evacuate  Boston.  They  were  also  repulsed  in  an 
attack  upon  Charleston,  S.  C.  In  July,  Lord  Howe  gained  an 
important  victory  at  Long  Island,  and  took  possession  of  New 
York,  driving  Washington  across  the  Delaware.  The  latter, 
however,  won  a  brilliant  victory  at  Trenton  and  another  at 
Princeton,  which  left  the  result  of  the  campaign  in  favour  of 
the  revolted  colonists. 

Notwithstanding  the  protests  of  Lord  Chatham  and  Lord 
North  against  the  war,  the  King  and  his  ministers  persisted  in 
their  policy  of  coercion.  The  following  spring,  General  Bur- 
1777-  goyne,  who  had  been  appointed  to  the  supreme  military 
command,  set  out  from  Canada,  with  nine  thousand  men,  to 
invade  the  State  of  New  York,  by  way  of  Lake  Champlain, 
eficct  a  junction  with  General  Gage  at  Albany,  and  sever  the 
American  confederacy  by  holding  the  Hudson  River.  He  cap- 
tured Ticonderoga,  and  advanced  to  Fort  Edward.  The  New 
England  and  New  York  militia  swarmed  around  the  invading 
army,  cut  off  its  supplies,  and,  familiar  with  the  ground,  attacked 


THE  REVOLUTIONARY  WAR. 


283 


its  detached  forces  with  fatal  success.  Burgoyne  was  defeated 
at  Stillwater,  on  the  Hudson,  and  soon  afterwards,  being  com- 
pletely surrounded,  surrendered,  with  six  thousand  men,  to 
General  Gates,  at  Saratoga.  This  surrender  led  to  the  recog- 
nition of  American  independence  by  the  French,  and  to  their 
active  assistance  of  the  revolt  by  money,  arras,  ships,  and 
volunteers.  The  occupation  of  Philadelphia  by  the  British,  and 
the  defeat  of  the  Americans  at  Brandy  wine  and  Germantown, 
were,  however,  disheartening  blows  to  the  young  republic. 

Governor  Carleton,  indignant  at  the  military  promotion  of 
General  Burgoyne  over  his  own  head,  resigned  his  commission, 
and  was  succeeded  in  ofSce  by  General  Haldimand.  A  Swiss 
by  birth,  and  a  strict  martinet  in  discipline,  the  stern  military 
government  of  the  latter  was  a  cause  of  much  dissatisfiiction. 
Seditious  sentiments  were  unhappily  only  too  rife  among  the 
population  of  Canada,  both  English  and  French.  These  the 
Governor  attempted  to  repress  with  the  strong  hand.  It  was 
dangerous  to  express  any  degi'ee  of  sympathy  with  the  revolted 
colonists.  Not  a  few  persons  suffered  arbitrary  arrest  and 
imprisonment  on  inadequate  grounds  under  the  vexatious  rule 
of  Haldimand.  Some  of  these  afterwards  instituted  civil 
actions  against  the  Governor  for  his  unconstitutional  invasion  of 
personal  liberty,  and  were  awarded 
damages,  which  were  paid  by  the 
British  Government. 

The  Eevolutionary  War  continued 
with  varying  fortune  to  drag  its 
weary  length.  Several  European 
officers  of  high  rank  and  distin- 
guished military  ability  placed  their 
swords  at  the  disposal  of  the  young 
republic  of  the  West,  and  rendered 
valuable  service  in  organizing,  ani- 
mating and  leading  its  armies. 
Among  these  were  the  Barons  Steu- 
ben and  DeKalb,  the  brave  Polish  patriots  Kosciuszko  and 
Pulaski,  and,  most  illustrious  of  them  all,  the  gallant  Marquis 


LA  FAYETTE. 


284  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

de  la  Fayette.  The  genius  and  moral  dignity  of  Washington 
sustained  the  courage  of  his  countrymen  under  repeated  disas- 
ter and  defeat,  and  commanded  the  admiration  and  respect  even 
of  his  enemies.  The  last  great  act  of  this  stormy  drama  was 
the  surrender  of  Lord  Cornwallis,  with  seven  thousand  troops, 
at  Yorktown,  Virginia,  October  19,  1781.  Lord  Chatham, 
Lord  North,  and  many  of  the  leading  minds  of  Great  Britain 
were  averse  to  the  prosecution  of  the  war,  and  now  public 
opinion  compelled  the  King  and  ministry  to  recognize  the 
independence  of  the  revolted  colonies. 

The  treaty- of  peace  was  signed  at  Versailles,  Septembers, 
1783.  By  its  terms  Canada  was  despoiled  of  the  magnificent 
region  lying  between  the  Mississippi  and  the  Ohio,  and  was 
divided  from  the  new  nation,  designated  the  United  States,  by 
the  Great  Lakes,  the  St.  Lawrence,  the  forty-fifth  parallel  of 
north  latitude,  "  the  highlands  dividing  the  waters  falling  into 
the  Atlantic  from  those  emptying  themselves  into  the  St.  Law- 
rence," and  the  St.  Croix  River.  That  portion  of  the  definition 
of  this  boundary  enclosed  in  inverted  commas  was  sufficiently 
vague  to  give  rise  to  serious  international  disputes  at  a  suljse- 
quent  period. 

The  Americans  were  also  accorded  the  right  of  fishing  on  the 
banks  and  coasts  of  Newfoundland,  and  in  the  Gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence,  and  of  landing  to  cure  and  dry  their  fish.  Having 
once  enjoyed  those  valuable  privileges,  the  New  England  fisher- 
men would  never  consent  to  give  them  up.  The  "fishery 
question"  became,  therefore,  in  after-times,  one  of  the  most 
perplexing  and  irritating  subjects  of  discussion  between  the  two 
countries. 

Although  Washington  had  established  the  independence  of 
his  country,  he  had  yet  to  organize  its  government  and  suppress 
the  internal  strifes  and  factions  by  which  it  was  agitated.  With 
consummate  wisdom,  he  called  to  his  aid  the  leading  minds  of 
the  country  —  men  who  had  the  confidence  of  the  diverse  politi- 
cal parties.  In  his  first  cabinet  were  associated  with  him  Jef- 
ferson, Knox,  Randolph,  and  Hamilton.     By  their  eff'orts,  aided 


THE  REVOLUTIONARY  WAR. 


285 


by  the  patriotism  of  the  people,  out  of  a  congeries  of  separate 
states  was  moulded  a  united  nation. 


Jefferson.     Eaos, 


Randolph.  HanuUun, 

"Washington's  cabinet. 


During  the  war,  the  province  of  Nova  Scotia  had  a  history  of 
blended  j)rosperity  and  adversity.  The  colony,  fostered  by 
large  Imperial  expenditure  in  the  original  planting  and  subse- 
quent maintenance  of  Halifax  as  a  great  naval  depot,  had 
proved  unfalteringly  loyal  to  the  crown.  American  privateers 
intercepted  the  vessels  conveying  stores,  forage,  and  provis- 
ions, from  Nova  Scotia  to  the  British  troops  at  Boston  and  Xew 
York.  They  even  attacked  and  destroyed  Fort  Frederick,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Eiver  St.  John,  and  plundered  the  town  of 
Lunenburg  on  the  Atlantic  coast. 

A  considerable  number  of  the  American  colonists  had  re- 
mained faithful  to  the  mother  country.  Their  condition,  during 
and  after  the  war,  was  one  of  extreme  hardship.  They  were 
exposed  to  suspicion  and  insult,  and  sometimes  to  wanton 
outrage  and  spoliation.  They  were  denounced  by  the  local 
Assemblies  as  traitors.  Many  of  them  were  men  of  wealth, 
education,  talent,  and  professional  ability.  But  they  found 
their  property  confiscated,  their  families  ostracized,  and  often 
their  lives  menaced.  The  fate  of  these  patriotic  men  excited  the 
sympathy  of  the  mother  countiy.     The  leaders  of  both  political 


286  BISTORT  OF  CANADA. 

parties  spoke  warmly  on  their  behalf.  Their  zeal  for  the  unity 
of  the  empire  won  for  them  the  name  of  United  Empire  Loyal- 
ists, or,  more  briefly,  U.  E.  Loyalists.  The  British  Govern- 
ment made  liberal  provision  for  their  domiciliation  in  the  sea- 
board provinces  and  Canada.  The  close  of  the  war  was  followed 
by  an  exodus  of  these  faithful  men  and  their  families,  who,  from 
their  loyalty  to  their  King,  and  the  institutions  of  their  father- 
land, abandoned  their  homes  and  property,  often  large  estates, 
to  encounter  the  discomforts  of  new  settlements,  or  the  perils  of 
the  pathless  wilderness,*  These  exiles  for  conscience'  sake 
came  chiefly  from  New  England  and  the  State  of  New  York, 
but  a  considerable  number  came  from  the  Middle  and  Southern 
States  of  the  Union. 

Several  thousand  settled  near  Halifax,  and  on  the  Bay  of 
Fundy.  They  were  conveyed  in  transj^ort-ships,  and  billeted  in 
churches  and  private  houses  till  provision  could  be  made  for 
their  settlement  on  grants  of  land.  Many  of  them  arrived  in 
wretched  plight,  and  had  to  be  clothed  and  fed  by  public  or 
private  charity.  A  large  number  established  themselves  on  the 
St.  John  Eiver,  and  founded  the  town  of  St.  John,  —  long 
called  Parrtown,  from  the  name  of  the  Governor  of  Nova  Scotia. 
Numbers  also  settled  in  Prince  Edward  Island. 

What  is  now  the  province  of  Ontario,  at  the  close  of  the 
Kevolutionary  War  was  almost  a  wilderness.  The  entire  Euro- 
pean population  is  said  to  have  been  less  than  two  thousand 
souls.  These  dwelt  chiefly  in  the  vicinity  of  the  fortified  posts 
on  the  St.  Lawrence,  the  Niagara,  and  the  St.  Clair  rivers. 
The  population  of  Lower  Canada  was,  at  this  time,  about  one 
hundred  and  twenty  thousand.  It  was  proposed  by  the  Home 
Government  to  create,  as  a  refuge  for  the  Loyalist  refugees,  a 
new  colony  to  the  west  of  the  older  settlements  on  the  St. 
1784.  Lawrence,  it  being  deemed  best  to  keep  the  French 
and  English  populations  separate.  For  this  purpose,  surveys 
were  made  along  the  upper  portion  of  the  river,  around  the 

*  The  British  Parliament  voted  £3,300,000  for  the  indemnification  and  assist- 
ance of  the  patriotic  Loyalists,  of  whom  twenty-five  thousand  are  estimated  to 
have  sought  refuge  in  the  British  colonies. 


THE  REVOLUTIONART  WAR.  287 

beautiful  bay  of  Quinte,*  on  the  northern  shores  of  Lake 
Ontario,  and  on  the  Niagara  and  St.  Clair  rivers. 

To  each  United  Empire  Loyalist,  was  assigned  a  free  grant 
of  two  hundred  acres  of  land,  as  also  to  each  child,  even  to 
those  born  after  immigration,  on  their  coming  of  age.  The 
Government,  moreover,  assisted  with  food,  clothing,  and  im- 
plements, those  loyal  exiles  who  had  lost  all  on  their  expatria- 
tion. Each  settler  received  an  axe,  hoe,  and  spade  ;  a  plough, 
and  one  cow,  were  allotted  to  every  two  families,  and  a  whip-saw 
and  cross-cut  saw  to  each  group  of  four  households.  Sets  of 
tools,  portable  corn-mills,  with  steel  plates  like  coffee-mills, 
and  other  conveniences  and  necessaries  of  life  were  also  dis- 
tributed among  those  pioneers  of  civilization  in  Upper  Canada. 

Many  disbanded  soldiers  and  militia,  and  half-pay  officers 
of  English  and  German  regiments,  took  up  land ;  and  liberal 
land-grants  were  made  to  immigrants  from  Great  Britain. 
These  early  settlers  were  for  the  most  part  poor,  and  for  the 
first  three  years  the  Government  granted  rations  of  food  to  the 
loyal  refugees  and  soldiers.  During  the  year  1784,  it  is  esti- 
mated that  ten  thousand  persons  were  located  in  Upper  Canada. 
In  course  of  time  not  a  few  immigrants  arrived  from  the  United 
States.  The  wilderness  soon  began  to  give  place  to  smiling 
farms,  thriving  settlements,  and  waving  fields  of  grain,  and 
zealous  missionaries  threaded  the  forest  in  order  to  administer 
to  the  scattered  settlers  the  rites  of  religion. 

*  In  1785,  the  settlement  on  the  site  of  Fort  Frontenac  (Kingston)  had  already 
fifty  houses,  "  some  of  them,"  vrrites  the  Kev.  Dr.  Smart,  then  the  only  clergy- 
man in  Upper  Canada,  "  very  elegant." 


288 


HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 


CHAPTEE    XXI. 

THE  FOUNDING  OF  UPPER  CANADA. 

Lord  Dorchester  (Sir  Guy  Carleton)  Governor-General  of  British  North  Amer- 
ica, 1786  —  The  Constitutional  Act  divicles  Canada  and  reconstructs  its  Con- 
stitution, 1792 —  Early  Legislation  —  Government  of  Upper  Canada  Organ- 
ized —  First  Parliament  —  Choice  of  a  Capital  —  York  (Toronto)  Founded, 
1795 — Major-General  Hunter,  Lieutenant-Governor,  1799  —  Internal  Develop- 
ment—  Growth  of  Political  Parties  —  Francis  Gore,  Lieutenant-Governor, 
1806  —  Judge  Thorpe,  a  Popular  Tribune  —  Social  Organization  —  Education 
—  Eeligion,  etc. 


o 


N  the  recall  of  Governor  Haldimand  in  1785,  Henry  Ham- 
ilton, Esq.,  a  retired  .military  officer,  administered  the 


HOPE   GATE,   QTra:BEC. 


government  of  Canada  till  the  arrival  in  the  following  year  of 
Sir  Guy  Carleton,  now  Lord  Dorchester,  who  became  Governor- 
General  of  British  North  America,  and  Commander-in-Chief  of 


FOUNDING   OF  UrPER   CANADA.  289 

all  His  Majesty's  forces  therein.  During  this  interval,  ISIajor- 
General  Plope  had  command  of  the  King's  troops,  and  his 
memory  was  perpetuated  iu  Hope  Gate,  of  Quebec,  shown  in 
the  engraving,  which  was  erected  under  his  authority. 

In  1788,  Lord  Dorchester,  by  proclamation,  divided  the  new 
western  colony  that  had  been  formed,  into  four  districts  ; 
namely,  Lunenburg,  extending  from  the  Ottawa  to  the  river 
Gananoque  ;  Mecklenburg,  from  the  Gananoque  to  the  Trent ; 
Nassau,  from  the  Trent  to  Long  Point  on  Lake  Erie  ;  and 
Hesse,  embracing  the  rest  of  Canada  to  the  St.  Clair.  To 
each  of  these  districts  were  appointed  a  judge  and  sheriff,  who 
administered  justice  by  means  of  Courts  of  Common  Pleas. 

The  Canadian  colonists  now  demanded  the  same  constitutional 
privileges  as  were  enjoyed  by  the  maritime  jDrovinces.  The 
Habeas  Corpus  and  trial  by  jury  in  civil  cases  were  secured  to 
them  by  statute  law.  But  they  wished  also  an  elective  Legis- 
lative Assembly,  instead  of  a  crown-appointed  Legislative 
Council,  and  a  larger  measure  of  constitutional  liberty.  In 
1791,  Lord  Grenville,  therefore,  introduced  into  the  House  of 
Lords  a  Bill,  known  as  the  Constitutional  Act,  for  the  adjust- 
ment of  Canadian  affairs.  It  divided  Canada  into  two  prov- 
inces by  a  line  drawn  from  Point-au-Baudet,  on  Lake  St.  Francis, 
to  Point  Fortune  on  the  Ottawa,  thence  along  the  course  of  that 
river  to  its  head-waters  and  the  southern  limit  of  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Territory. 

Under  the  new  Constitution  each  province  received  a  separate 
legislature,  consisting  of  a  Legislative  Council,  appointed  by 
the  crown ;  a  Legislative  Assembly,  elected  by  the  people  ; 
and  a  Governor,  appointed  by  the  crown,  and  responsible  only 
to  it.  The  Assembly  was  elected  for  four  years,  but  might 
be  sooner  dissolved  by  the  Governor  for  due  cause.  In  it  was 
vested  the  power  of  raising  a  revenue  for  roads,  bridges, 
schools,  and  similar  public  services.  A  body,  which  at  length 
became  exceedingly  obnoxious  to  public  opinion,  was  the 
Executive  Council.  It  consisted  of  salaried  officials  of  the 
crown  and  judges,  who  were  the  confidential  advisors  of  the 
Governor,  although  not  accountable  for  their  acts,  either  to 

37 


290  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

him  or  to  the  Legislative  Assembly.  They*  frequently,  or 
indeed  generally,  held  seats  in  the  Legislative  Council,  and 
often  virtually  controlled  the  legislation  by  their  predominant, 
yet  irresponsible  influence.  In  Western  or  Upper  Canada, 
British  law,  both  civil  and  criminal,  and  freehold  land  tenure 
were  introduced.  In  Eastern  or  Lower  Canada,  the  scigneurial 
tenure  and  French  law  in  civil  cases  were  retained.  An 
allotment  of  one-seventh  of  the  crown  lands  was  made  in  each 
province  "for  the  support  of  a  Protestant  clergy"  —  a  pro- 
vision which  gave  rise  to  much  subsequent  trouble  and  agita- 
tion. 

The  Canada  Bill  was  warmly  discussed  in  the  English  House 
of  Commons.  Mr.  Charles  Fox  opposed  the  principle  of 
crown-appointed  Councils  as  denying  due  political  influence  to 
the  people,  and  urged  the  constitution  of  elective  Councils. 
Burke,  on  the  contrary,  whom  the  excesses  of  the  French 
Revolution  had  greatly  alarmed,  inveighed  against  the  principle 
of  popular  liberty.  Mr.  Lymburner,  a  Quebec  merchant,  who 
represented  the  feelings  of  the  British  population,  was  heard  at 
the  bar  of  the  House  against  the  Bill,  chiefly  on  commercial 
grounds.  As  Quebec  and  Montreal,  the  chief  ports  of  entry, 
held  the  key  of  commerce,  it  was  feared  that  unjustly  discrim- 
inative duties  would  be  imposed  upon  the  trade  of  Upper 
Canada. 

The  new  Constitution  was  inaugurated  in  1792.  Its  opera- 
tions soon  justified  the  apprehensions  of  Fox.  The  Legis- 
lative, and  especially  the  Executive  Councils,  composed  as 
they  were  largely  of  salaried  officials,  judges,  and  dependents 
on  the  crown,  and  utterly  in'esponsible  to  the  people,  became 
objects  of  popular  jealousy. 

In  Lower  Canada,  in  the  absence  of  Lord  Dorchester,  Colonel 
Alured  Clarke  was  entrusted  with  the  administration  of  gov- 
ernment. The  elections  took  place  in  June,  and,  in  some 
instances,  were  warmly  contested.  The  Legislature  met  on  the 
17th  of  December,  in  the  even  then  venerable  city  of  Quebec. 
It  was  composed  of  a  nominated  Council  of  fifteen,  and  a 
Lower  House  of  fifty  members,  elected  for  four  years.    Fifteen 


FOUNDING   OF  UPPER   CANADA.  201 

of  the  latter  were  of  British,  and  the  remainder  of  French 
origin.  The  chief  justice  of  the  province,  the  Hon.  William 
Smith,  was  chosen  Speaker  of  the  Legislative  Council ;  and  M. 
Panet,  a  distinguished  advocate,  who  spoke  no  language  l)ut  his 
native  French,  was  elected  Speaker  of  the  Assembly.  It  was 
decided,  therefore,  that  the  debates  should  be  conducted,  as 
they  have  been  ever  since  in  all  legislatures  in  which  Lower 
Canada  was  represented,  in  both  English  and  French  ;  and  the 
official  documents  were  published  in  both  languages.  A  jeal- 
ousy of  race  was  fomented  by  the  invectives  of  the  rival  news- 
papers of  the  French  and  English  press. 

In  Upper  Canada,  John  Graves  Simcoe,  Esq.,  was  appointed 
first  Lieutenant-Governor.  He  was  a  landed  gentleman,  and  had 
been  a  member  of  the  English  House  of  Commons.  He  held 
also  the  rank  of  Brigadier-General  in  the  army,  and  had  com- 
manded a  royal  regiment  during  the  Revolutionary  War.  He 
had  assisted  in  passing  the  Constitutional  Act,  and  was  anxious 
to  see  it  successfully  carried  out.*  His  administration  was 
honest,  prudent,  energetic,  and  public-spirited.  The  Govern- 
ment of  Upper  Canada  was  organized  at  Kingston  in  the  month 
of  July,  1792  ;  when  the  members  of  the  Executive  and  Legis- 
lative Councils  were  sworn  in,  and  writs  were  issued  for  the 
election  of  the  Legislative  Assembly. f  The  seat  of  govern- 
ment was  established  at  Newark,  a  village  of  about  a  hundred 
houses,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Niagara  River.  Here  the  first 
Parliament  of  Upper  Canada  assembled  on  the  17th  of  Septem- 
ber, 1792.  The  Assembly  consisted  of  sixteen,  and  the  Legis- 
lative Council  of  seven  members, — plain,  home-spun  clad 
farmers  or  merchants,  from  the  plough  or  store.  The  session 
lasted  five  weeks,  in  which  time  eight  bills  of  great  practical 
utility  were  passed.     They  provided  for  the  introduction  of  the 

*  He  had  also  a  pathetic  personal  interest  in  Canada,  his  father,  Captain 
John  Simcoe,  commander  of  H.  M.  Ship  "  Pembroke,"  having  been  killed  at 
the  siege  of  Quebec  in  1759. 

t  The  names  of  these  first  Conscript  Fathers  of  Upper  Canada  were  William 
Osgoode,  James  Baby,  Alexander  Grant,  and  Peter  Russell,  members  of  the 
Executive  Council ;  and,  in  addition  to  these,  Robert  Hamilton,  Richard  Cart- 
wright,  and  John  Munro,  members  of  the  Legislative  Council. 


292  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

English  civil  law  and  trial  by  jury,  for  the  easy  recoveiy  of 
small  debts,  and  for  the  erection  of  jails  and  court-houses  in 
each  of  the  four  districts  into  which  the  country  was  divided, — 
the  Eastern  or  Johnstown  District,  the  Middle  or  Kingston 
District,  the  Home  or  Niagara  District,  and  the  Western  or 
Detroit  District.  The  Newark  "  Gazette,"  the  first  Upper 
Canadian  journal,  recorded  the  Acts  jDassed,  the  proclamations 
of  the  Governor,  and  a  meagre  amount  of  news  from  the  outer 
world. 

When  the  seat  of  government  was  first  removed  to  Niagara, 
the  fort  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  river  was  occupied  by  Brit- 
ish troops.  But  on  the  withdrawal  of  the  garrison,  and  the 
surrender  of  the  fort  to  the  Americans,  Governor  Simcoe, 
deeming  Newark  too  near  the  frontier,  looked  for  a  more 
eligible  site.  "  The  chief  town  of  a  province,"  he  said,  "  must 
not  be  placed  under  the  guns  of  an  enemy's  fort."  He  pro- 
posed to  found  a  new  London,  in  the  heart  of  the  Western 
District,  secure  from  invasion,  on  the  banks  of  the  winding 
Thames.  Lord  Dorchester  favoured  the  claims  of  Kingston, 
which  he  made  the  principal  naval  and  military  station  of  the 
province.  As  a  compromise,  York,  as  it  was  named,  on  the 
site  of  an  old  French  fort,  was  selected,  chiefly  on  account 
of  its  excellent  harbour,  although  the  laud  was  low  and  swampy. 
The  growth  and  prosperity  of  the  fair  city  of  Toronto  vindi- 
cate the  wisdom  of  the  choice. 

Parliament  continued  to  sit  at  Newark  till  1797.  The  prin- 
cipal Acts  provided  for  civil  and  municipal  administration,  for 
the  construction  of  roads,  fixing  of  duties,  millers'  tolls,  and 
the  like.  Eewards  of  twenty  and  ten  shillings,  respectively, 
were  offered  for  wolves'  and  bears'  heads,  which  fact  is  suggest- 
ive of  the  forest  perils  of  the  times.  The  payment  of  members 
of  Parliament  was  fixed  at  ten  shillings  per  day.  The  intro- 
duction of  slaves  was  forbidden,  and  their  term  of  servitude 
limited,  ten  years  before  similar  legislation  in  Lower  Canada. 

Governor  Simcoe  removed  to  York  in  1795,  before  a  house 
was  built,  lodging  temporarily  in  a  canvas  tent  or  pavilion,* 

*  Originally  constructed  for  Captain  Cook. 


FOUNDING   OF  UPPER   CANADA. 


293 


pitched  on  the  plateau  overlooking  the  western  end  of  the  bay. 
In  1797,  the  provincial  legislature  was  opened  in  a  wooden 
building,  near  the  river  Don,  whose  site  is  commemorated  by 
the  name  of  Parliament  Street ;  but  the  founder  of  Toronto 
had  previously  been  transferred  to  the  government  of  San 
Domingo.  He  had  projected  a  vigorous  policy  for  the  encour- 
agement of  agriculture,  fisheries,  and  internal  development. 
He  employed  the  Queen's  Rangers  to  construct  a  main  road, 
Yonge  Street,  toward  the  lake  that  bears  his  name,  and  pro- 
posed to  open  direct  communication  between  Lake  Huron  and 
Lake  Ontario,  and  also  with  the  Ottawa.  On  his  removal, 
most  of  these  wise  schemes  fell  through.  Land  desimed  for 
settlement  was  seized  by  speculators,  especially  in  the  vicinity 
of  Toronto,  and  the  general  development  of  the  country  was 
greatly  retarded. 

Mr.  Peter  Russell,  the  senior  member  of  the  Executive 
Council,  administered  the  government  till  the  arrival  of  1799. 
jMajor-General  Hunter,  who  held  office  for  the  ensuing  six  years. 
The  progress  of  the  country  in  trade,  population,  and  the 
development  of  its  resources,  was  rapid.  The  tide  of  immi- 
gration steadily  increased.  The  L-ish  troubles  of  "  '98," 
especially,  led  many  hardy  settlers  to  seek  new  homes  in  the 
virgin  wilds  of  Canada.  The  obstructions  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
made  communication  with  Montreal  and  Quebec  more  difficult 
than  with  Albany  and  New  York.  A  brisk  lake  trade  therefore 
sprang  up,  and  additional  ports  of  entry  were  established, 
which  fostered  the  prosperity  of  the  growing  settlements  of 
Cornwall,  Brockville,  Kingston,  York,  Niagara,  Amherstburg, 
and  other  frontier  villages.  The  legislature  also  encouraged 
by  a  money  grant  the  gro\vth  of  hemp,  with  a  view  to  make 
England  independent  of  Russia  for  cordage.  In  1803,  Colonel 
Talbot,  an  eccentric  British  officer,  received  a  grant  of  five 
thousand  acres  of  land  on  Lake  Erie,  on  condition  of  placing  a 
settler  on  every  two  hundred  acres.  For  many  years  he  kept  a 
sort  of  feudal  state  in  his  forest  community.  As  the  province 
increased  in  wealth  and  population,  the  evils  of  a  practically 
in-esponsible  government  began  to  be  felt.      The  Executive 


294  BISTORT  OF  CANADA. 

Council,  composed  of  the  Governor  and  five  of  his  nominees, 
removable  at  his  pleasure,  gradually  absorbed  the  whole 
administrative  influence  of  the  colony.  The  official  "  Gazette," 
the  only  representative  of  the  public  press,  was  in  the  hands  of 
the  Government,  as  was  also  the  whole  of  the  revenue  of  the 
province.  The  Legislative  Assembly,  therefore,  could  exercise 
no  check  by  annual  votes  of  supply.  Many  poor  gentlemen, 
half-pay  officers,  and  others  of  similar  character  from  the 
mother  country,  sought  to  better  their  fortunes  in  the  new 
colony.  By  birth  and  training  they  were  unfitted  to  cope  with 
the  hardships  of  backwoods  life.  They  therefore  disposed  of 
their  land  grants  for  whatever  they  would  bring,  and  became 
clamorous  petitioners  for  employment  under  the  Government. 
They  soon  engrossed  almost  entirely  the  departmental  offices, 
for  which,  by  education  and  previous  position,  they  were 
especially  adaj)ted,  or  became  hangers-on  and  zealous  support- 
ers of  the  party  in  power ;  while  they  looked  down  with  a  sort 
of  aristocratic  exclusiveness  on  the  uncultivated,  and  perhaps 
sometimes  uncouth,  hard-working  yeomanry  of  the  country. 

Others,  with  a  wiser  policy,  adapted  themselves  to  their 
altered  circumstances,  and  to  the  condition  of  the  province. 
While  learning  to  swing  the  axe  and  hold  the  plough,  they 
preserved,  amid  the  rudest  surroundings,  the  tastes  and  instincts 
of  gentlemen.  They  became,  from  their  education  and  cul- 
tivated manners,  centres  of  influence  and  leaders  of  opinion  in 
the  rural  communities  in  which  they  lived,  which  tacitly  con- 
ceded a  superiority  which  they  never  would  have  yielded  had  it 
been  directly  asserted. 

The  sturdy  yeomanry  not  unnaturally  regarded  with  jealousy 
and  aversion  the  former  of  these  classes,  and  allied  themselves 
with  the  latter  as  their  legitimate  leaders  and  friends.  Thus 
early  in  the  century  the  origin  of  parties  may  be  traced  in 
Upper  Canada  —  on  the  one  hand,  the  zealous  supporters  of  an 
irresponsible  executive ;  on  the  other,  the  advocates  of  a  larger 
measure  of  constitutional  liberty.  The  easy-going  Governor 
was  dependent  for  information  on  his  Executive  Council,  and 
naturally  followed  their  advice.     They  as  naturally  fiivoured 


FOUNDING    OF  UPPER   CANADA.  295 

their  friends  in  the  distribution  of  pcatronage  and  bestowment 
of  office.  Over  sixty  tliousand  pounds  was  annually  expended 
in  presents  for  the  Indian  tribes,  and  complaints  of  corruption 
m  the  disbursement  of  these,  and  of  the  supplies  for  the 
loyalist  refugees  and  immigrants,  soon  began  to  be  heard.  The 
gi-anting  of  land  patents  to  non-residents,  for  the  purpose  of 
speculation  was  an  evil  which  greatly  retarded  the  progress  of 
the  country,  and  led  to  much  agitation  and  dissatisfaction  in 
after  times. 

Even  the  administration  of  justice  did  not  always  command 
popular  confidence.  The  judges  were  not  appointed  for  life, 
but  at  the  pleasure  of  the  crown,  and  were  sometimes  thought 
to  be  the  instruments  of  the  appointing  power.  The  magis- 
trates were,  for  the  most  part,  engaged  in  trade,  and  not 
unfrequently  were  accused  of  using  their  official  influence  in  the 
practice  of  extortion  and  promotion  of  their  private  interests. 
For  an  illegal  decision,  an  action  was  brought  agamst  a  justice 
of  the  peace,  and  he  was  condemned  to  pay  a  fine  of  one 
hundred  pounds.  On  an  appeal  to  the  Court  of  King's  Bench, 
an  attempt  was  made  to  set  this  verdict  aside,  and  the  clerk  of 
the  court,  on  the  warrant  of  the  crown  lawyer,  refused  to 
issue  the  execution.  These  derelictions  of  justice,  and  other 
causes  of  irritation,  tended  to  embitter  public  feeling,  and  led 
to  strenuous  controversies  with  the  dominant  party  in  the 
province. 

Mr.  Hunter  was  succeeded  as  Governor  by  Francis  Gore, 
Esq.  His  personable  character  was  estimable,  and  his  isoe. 
purposes  honest ;  but  arbitrary  power  is  a  dangerous  prerogative 
for  any  man  to  possess.  In  his  ignorance  of  the  country,  he 
depended  on  his  Council,  like  his  predecessor,  for  information 
and  advice.  These  gentlemen,  not  unnaturally,  desired  to 
maintain  the  privileges  of  their  order  and  of  their  friends.  The 
complaints  of  the  people  found  expression  in  memorials  from 
the  grand  juries  to  Mr.  Thorpe,  an  upright  and  honoured  judge 
of  the  King's  Bench,  to  be  by  him  laid  before  the  Governor, 
Judge  Thorpe  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  champion  of  the 
people,   and,  notwithstanding  the  utmost  opposition  of  the 


296 


HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 


Government,  was  elected  to  the  legislature,  although  he  did 
not  solicit  a  single  vote.  The  official  "Gazette"  violently 
assailed  his  character.  An  opposition  journal,  the  "Upper 
Canada  Guardian,"  was  established,  and  a  party  warflire  was 
vigorously  persecuted.  The  Government  succeeded  in  procur- 
ing the  recall  of  Judge  Thorpe  to  Great  Britain,  where  he  sued 
Mr.  Gore  for  libel,  and  obtained  a  verdict.  Mr.  Willcocks, 
the  editor  of  the  "  Guardian,"  and,  for  a  time,  leader  of  the 
opposition  in  the  Legislative  Assembly,  lost  his  office  of  sheriff 
on  account  of  his  political  independence,  and  was  subsequently 
imprisoned  in  the  log  jail  of  York  for  breach  of  privilege  in 
his  trenchant  criticism  on  public  affairs.*  In  1811,  Mr.  Gore 
returned  to  England,  leaving  the  temporary  administration  of 
government  in  the  hands  of  Major-General  Sir  Isaac  Brock, 
commander-in-chief  of  His  Majesty's  forces  in  Upper  Canada. 

Meanwhile  the  country  had  steadily  prospered,  undisturbed 
in  its  forest  isolation  by  the  great  European  war,  which  was 
deluging  with  blood  a  hundred  battlefields  and  desolating  thou- 
sands of  homes.  By  the  year  1809,  the  population  had  in- 
creased to  about  seventy  thousand.  Taxes  were  exceedingly 
light.  The  customs  revenue,  derived  principally  from  the 
imports  of  groceries  —  for  the  clothing  was  chiefly  homespun  — 
amounted  to  £7,000. 

The  chief  commercial  want  was  a  paper  currency  and  banking 
facilities.  The  lack  of  money  led  to  a  system  of  barter  between 
merchant  and  consumer,  which  often  inextricably  involved  the 
latter  in  debt.  Popular  education  was  at  a  low  ebb,  although  a 
grammar  school  had  been  established  in  each  of  the  eight 
districts  into  which  the  province  was  now  divided.  From  the 
almost  untaxed  importation  of  liquors  —  the  duty  on  spirits 
was  only  sixpence  per  gallon,  that  on  wines  nincpence  — 
intemperance,  with  its  attendant  evils,  was  the  prevailing  vice. 
The  people  lived  in  rude  abundance,  the  virgin  soil  brought 
forth  plentifully,  deer  roamed  in  the  forest,  wild  fowl  swarmed 

*  In  the  Tvar  of  1813-15,  Willcocks  at  first  fought  loyally  for  his  country,  hut 
afterwards  deserted  to  the  Americans,  and  was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Fort 


FOUNDING    OF  UPPER   CANADA.  297 

in  marsh  and  mere,  and  the  lakes  and  rivers  teemed  with  the 
finest  fish.  Homespun,  and  often  home-woven,  frieze  or  flannel 
fm'nishcd  warm  and  serviceable  clothing. 

The  houses,  chiefly  of  logs,  rough  or  squared  with  the  axe, 
though  rude,  were  not  devoid  of  homely  comfort.  The  furni- 
ture, except  in  towns  and  villages,  w\as  mostly  home-made. 
Open  fireplaces  and  out-of-door  ovens  were  the  popular  sub- 
stitutes for  stoves.  Oxen  were  largely  employed  in  tilling  the 
soil,  and  dragging  the  rude  w\agons  over  rough  roads.  The 
fields  were  studded  with  blackened  stumps,  and  the  girdling 
forest  ever  bounded  the  horizon  or  swept  around  the  scanty 
clearing.  The  gi-ain  was  reaped  with  the  sickle  or  scythe, 
threshed  with  the  flail,  and  winnowed  by  the  wind.  Grist-mills 
being  almost  unknown,  it  was  generally  ground  in  the  steel 
hand-mills  furnished  by  the  Government,  or  pounded  in  a  large 
mortar,  hollowed  out  of  a  hardwood  stump,  by  means  of  a 
wooden  pestle  attached  to  a  spring  beam. 

The  roads  were  often  only  blazed  paths  through  the  forest, 
supported  on  transverse  corduroy  logs  where  they  passed 
through  a  swamp  or  marsh.  The  "  Governor's  Road,"  as  it 
was  called,  traversed  the  length  of  the  province,  along  the 
St.  Lawrence  and  Lake  Ontario,  and  westward  to  Amherstburg. 
Yonge  Street  extended  from  York  to  the  Holland  Eiver.  Much 
of  the  early  legislation  had  reference  to  the  construction  of 
roads  and  bridges,  chiefly  by  statute  labour.  By  the  liberal  and 
paternal  policy  of  the  Government  toward  the  Lidian  tribes, 
the  colonists,  miliko  the  early  French  and  American  settlers, 
were  relieved  of  all  apprehensions  of  danger  from  the  red  man. 
The  judges  and  crown  lawyers  made  their  circuits,  when 
possible,  in  Government  schooners,*  and  the  assize  furnished 
an  opportunity  of  reviving  for  a  time  in  the  county  towns  the 
half-forgotten  gaieties  of  fashionable  society.  In  the  aristocratic 
circles  of  York,  a  mimic  representation  of  Old  World  court-life 
was  observed,  with  only  partial  success. 

*  lu  1801,  the  "Speedy,"  a  ten-gun  vessel,  having  as  passengers  Judge  Gray 
and  several  members  of  the  Court  of  King's  Bench,  was  lost,  with  all  on  board, 
on  her  way  from  York  to  Kingston. 
38 


298  BISTORT  OF  CANADA. 

Before  the  War  of  1812,  there  were  only  four  clergymen 
of  the  Church  of  England  in  Upper  Canada.  The  oldest  church 
in  the  province  was  at  the  Indian  settle- 
ment near  Brantford.  Its  history  can 
be  traced  back  to  1784.  It  is  still  occu- 
pied for  public  worship.  It  possesses  a 
handsome  communion  service  of  beaten 
silver,  presented  by  Queen  Anne  to  the 
Indian  chapel  on  the  Mohawk  River.  Be- 
neath the  walls  of  this  humble  sanctuary 
repose  the  ashes  of  the  Mohawk  chief, 
Thayendinaga, — Joseph  Brant  —  who  gal- 
lantly fought  for  the  British  through  two 
bloody  wars.  At  the  close  of  the  Eevolu- 
tionary  War,  the  loyal  Mohawk  tribes  migrated  to  the  Indian 
reserve  on  the  Grand  Eiver.  A  few  Methodist  and  Presbyterian 
ministers  toiled  through  the  wilderness  to  visit  the  scattered 
flocks  committed  to  their  care.  Amid  these  not  altogether 
propitious  circumstances  were  nourished  that  patriotic  and 
sturdy  yeomanry  that  did  doughty  battle  for  Britain  in  the 
ai^proaching  war,  and  many  of  those  noble  characters  that 
illustrated  the  future  annals  of  their  country ;  and  then  were 
laid  the  foundations  of  that  goodly  civilization  amid  which  we 
live  to-day. 


THE  WAR   OF  1812 -U. 


299 


CHAPTER    XXn. 

LOWER  CANADA  — OXJTBEEAK  OF  THE  WAR  OF  1812-14. 

Inauguration  of  the  New  Coiistitutiou  in  Lower  Canada,  1792  —  McLgan's 
Attempt  on  Quebec  —  Hia  Execution,  1797  —  Sir  James  Craig's  Stormy  Ad- 
miuistratiou,  1808-11 — Constitutional  Crisis  —  Suppression  of  "  Le  Cana- 
dien"  —  Sir  Georgo  Prevost,  Governor-General  —  Causes  of  tbe  War  of 
1812-14  —  The  "  Berlin  Decree  "  and  "  Orders  in  Council "  —  The  "  Right  of 
Search"  —  Sea-Fight  between  the  " Chesapeake 'i and  "Leopard"  —  Henry's 
"  Secret  Correspondence  "  published  —  War  Declared,  June  18, 1812  —  Repub- 
lican Anti-War  Protest  —  Position  of  Combatants  —  Canadian  Loyalty  — 
Hull's  Surrender  —  Battle  of  Queenston  Heights  —  Death  of  Brock,  October 
13, 1812  —  Obsequies  of  Brock  and  McDonnell  —  Their  Monument  —  Smyth's 
Gasconade — His  Fiasco  at  Navy  Island,  November  18,  1812  —  Dearborn's 
Invasion  —  Repulsed  at  Lacolle,  November  20, 1812 — Naval  Engagements  — 
The  "Constitution"  and  "  Gaerri^re,"  etc. 

IN  1797,  Lord  Dorchester,  after  twenty  years'  paternal  over- 
si£?ht  of  Canada,  resiorned  his  office  of  Governor-General, 


PRESCOTT  GATE,  QUEBEC. 

seeking  in  private  life  the  repose  which  his  advanced  age  —  he 
was  now  seventy-two — demanded,  and  which  his  protracted  and 


300  BISTORT  OF  CANADA. 

valuable  services  had  faithfully  earned.*  Ou  his  departure, 
the  gratitude  of  the  Canadian  people  found  expression  in 
numerous  addresses  of  affectionate  regard. 

Lord  Dorchester  was  succeeded  as  Governor-General  by 
Major-General  Prescott,  an  accomplished  soldier,  of  much 
urbanity  of  manner,  and,  though  firm  in  the  discliarge  of  duty, 
of  kindly  disposition.  He  greatly  strengthened  the  defences 
of  Quebec,  and  constructed  the  gateway  between  the  Upper 
and  Lower  Town,  shown  in  tlie  engraving,  and  known  by  his 
name.  The  most  striking  event  during  his  administration,  was 
the  daring  attempt,  in  the  year  1797,  of  a  bankrupt  American, 
named 'McLean,  to  capture  Quebec,  by  tampering  with  certain 
of  its  inhabitants.  His  designs  were  detected,  and  he  was 
hanged  for  high  treason,  and  then  beheaded  with  a  display  of 
barbarism  characteristic  of  the  political  executions  of  a  bygone 
age.  The  commerce  of  the  country  continued  rapidly  to 
develop;  the  revenue  increasing  from  £5,000  in  1793  to 
£34,000  in  1805. 

A  few  negro  slaves,  a  heritage  from  the  French  regime,  still 
remained  in  a  state  of  servitude  under  their  old  masters.  In 
1803,  by  a  decision  of  Chief  Justice  Osgoode  of  Montreal, 
slavery  was  declared  illegal,  and  the  slaves  were  at  once 
thereby  emancipated.!  Canada  thenceforth  became  a  place 
of  refuge  for  the  fugitives  from  the  cruel  bondage  of  the 
Southern  States  of  the  neighbouring  republic. 

In  1808,  Sir  James  Craig,  a  veteran  military  officer,  was 
appointed  Governor-General,  in  anticipation  of  war  with  the 
United  States.  His  administration  was  characterized  by  con- 
tinual struggles  between  the  irresponsible  executive  and  the 
elective  Assembly,  which  was  regarded  as  the  safeguard  of 
popular  liberty. 

The  Assembly  took  strong  ground  against  the  election  of 
judges  as  members  of  parliament,  and  asserted  its  right  of 
control  of  the  financial  expenditure.     The  Council  vetoed  its 

*  He  lived  on  to  the  ripo  old  age  of  eighty-three,  and  died  in  the  year  1808. 
+  In  1784,  there  were  only  three  hundred  and  four  in  the  jirovince.     At  the 
time  of  emancipation  the  number  was  probably  much  less. 


THE    WAR    OF  1812-14.  301 

acts,  and  the  Governor  dissolved  the  House,  1809.  The  new 
parliament  proved  still  more  refractory,  and  was,  in  turn, 
peremptorily  dissolved,  1810.  The  country  was  thrown  into 
a  ferment.  The  British  population  generally  sided  with  the 
Governor  and  Council,  the  French  with  the  refractory  Assem- 
bly. During  the  election  which  followed,  six  members  of  the 
late  Opposition  were  thrown  into  prison  for  alleged  treasonable 
practices,  as  was  also  the  printer  of  the  "Canadien"  news- 
paper, the  Opposition  organ,  the  press  and  type  of  which  were 
seized  by  the  Government.  The  people  cried  out  against  this 
despotic  exercise  of  authority,  and  declared  that  they  were 
living  under  a  "  Reign  of  Terror."  The  threatened  dead-lock, 
however,  was  averted  by  a  little  mutual  concession.  The 
imprisoned  members  were  released,  and  the  Judges'  Disquali- 
fication Bill  passed  the  legislature,  and  received  the  Governor's 
assent.  Sir  James  Craig,  greatly  broken  in  health,  now 
returned  to  England,  and  was  succeeded  in  office  by  Sir  George 
Prevost,  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Nova  Scotia,  1811.* 

"VYe  proceed  now  to  trace  the  causes  which  led  to  the  Anglo- 
American  war  of  1812-14. 

For  sometime  previous  to  the  open  rupture  of  1812,  public 
feeling  in  the  United  States  had  become  increasingly  hostile  to 
Great  Britain.  The  "Berlin  Decree"  of  Napoleon,  issued 
November  1,  1806,  declared  a  blockade  of  the  entire  British 
coast,  and  let  loose  French  privateers  against  her  shipping, 
and  that  of  neutral  nations  trading  with  her.  Great  Britain 
retaliated  by  the  celebrated  "  Orders  in  Council,"  which  isor. 
declared  all  traffic  with  France  contraband,  and  the  vessels 
prosecuting  it,  with  their  cargoes,  liable  to  seizure.  These 
restrictions  pressed  heavily  on  neutrals,  especially  on  the 
United  States,  which  now  engrossed  much  of  the  carrying  trade 
of  the  world.  The  Democratic  majority  in  the  Union,  there- 
fore, bitterly  resented  the  British  "Orders,"  although  com- 

*  In  1809,  the  Hon.  John  Molson  of  Montreal,  launched  the  first  steamboat 
on  the  St.  Lawrence.  It  made  the  trip  to  Quebec  in  thirty-six  hours.  Four 
years  previously,  Fulton  navigated  the  Hudson  Eiver  in  the  first  steamboat 
known. 


302  HISTORY  OF  CANADA.' 

placently  overlooking  the  « '  Berlin  Decree  "  by  which  they  were 
provoked,  and  which  was  equally  hostile  to  American  com- 
merce. President  Jefferson  now  laid  an  embargo  on  all  ship- 
ping, domestic  or  foreign,  in  the  harbours  of  the  United 
1808.  States.  For  this  Congress,  the  following  year,  substi- 
tuted a  Non-Intercourse  Act,  prohibiting  all  commerce  with 
either  belligerent  till  the  obnoxious  "Decree"  or  "Orders" 
were  repealed.  Severe  injury  was  thus  inflicted  on  both 
Great  Britain  and  America,  which  tended  to  their  mutual 
exasperation. 

Another  cause  conspired  to  fan  the  war  feeling  to  a  flame. 
Great  Britain,  pressed  by  the  difficulty  of  manning  her  immense 
fleets,  asserted  the  "right  of  search"  of  American  vessels  for 
deserters  from  her  navy.  The  United  States  frigate  ' '  Chesa- 
peake "  resisted  this  right,  sanctioned  by  international  law,  but 
was  compelled  by  a  broadside  from  H.  M.  Ship  "Leopard" 
(June,  1807)  to  submit,  and  to  deliver  up  four  deserters  found 
among  her  crew.  The  British  Government  disavowed  the 
violence  of  this  act  and  offered  reparation.  But  the  Democratic 
party  was  clamorous  for  war,  and  eager  to  seduce  from  their 
allegiance  and  annex  to  the  United  States  the  provinces  of 
British  North  America.  The  world  was  to  witness  the  strange 
spectacle  of  the  young  Republic  of  the  "West  leagued  with  the 
arch-despot  Napoleon,  against  almost  the  sole  champion  of 
constitutional  liberty  in  Europe.* 

Public  resentment  in  the  United  States  was  still  further 
exasperated  by  the  pul)lication  of  the  secret  correspondence  of 
a  Captain  Henry,  a  renegade  adventurer,  sent  by  Sir  James 
Craig,  Governor-General  of  Canada,  in  1809,  to  ascertain  the 
state  of  feeling  in  New  England  toward  Great  Britain.  He 
reported  a  disposition  to  secede  from  the  Union,  and  sub- 
sequently offered  his  correspondence  to  the  American  Govern- 
ment, demanding  therefor  the  exorbitant  sum  of  $50,000,  which 


*  In  May,  1811,  a  collision  occurred  bet-ween  the  British  and  American  war 
Tessels  —  "  Little  Belt,"  18  guns,  and  "  President,"  44  guns  —  resulting  in  the 
defeat  of  the  former  with  the  loss  of  eleven  men ;  hut  both  nationa  disavowed 
hostile  intent. 


THE   WAR   OF  1812-14.  303 

ho  received  from  the  secret  service  fund.  His  information  was 
unauthentic  and  unimportant,  and  the  British  Government 
repudiated  his  agency,  but  the  war  party  in  the  Congress  was 
implacable.  War  was  precipitately  declared  June  18,  1812, 
in  the  hope  of  intercepting  the  West  Indian  fleet,  and  of  over- 
running Canada  before  it  could  be  aided  hj  Great  Britain. 
Almost  simultaneously,  the  obnoxious  "  Orders  in  Council,"  the 
chief  ostensible  cause  of  the  war,  were  repealed,  but  the  news 
produced  no  change  in  American  policy. 

The  Republican  party  of  the  United  States,  however,  which 
was  predominant  in  its  northern  section,  and  comprised  the 
more  moderate  and  intelligent  part  of  the  nation,  was  strenu- 
ously opposed  to  the  action  of  Congress.  A  convention  was 
held  at  Albany,  protesting  against  the  war  and  against  an 
alliance  with  Napoleon,  "  every  action  of  whose  life  demon- 
strated a  thirst  for  universal  empire  and  for  the  extinction  of 
human  freedom."  At  Boston,  on  the  declaration  of  hostilities, 
the  flags  of  the  shipping  were  placed  at  half-mast  as  a  sign  of 
mourning,  and  a  public  meeting  denounced  the  war  as  ruinous 
and  unjust. 

The  position  of  the  parties  to  this  contest  was  very  unequal. 
Great  Britain  was  exhausted  by  a  war  by  sea  and  land  of 
nearly  twenty  years'  duration.  Canada  was  unprepared  for  the 
conflict.  She  had  less  than  six  thousand  troops*  to  defend 
fifteen  hundred  miles  of  frontier.  Her  entire  population  was 
under  three  hundred  thousand,  while  that  of  the  United  States 
was  eight  millions,  or  in  the  proportion  of  twenty-seven  to  one. 
The  Americans  relied  on  the  reported  disafiection  of  the 
provinces  with  British  rule.  In  this  they  were  egregiously 
mistaken.  Forgetting  their  political  difierences,  the  Canadians 
rallied  with  a  spontaneous  outburst  of  loyalty  to  the  support  of 
the  Government.  Even  the  American  immigrants,  with  scarce 
an  exception,  proved  faithful  to  their  adopted  country.  The 
legislature  of  Lower  Canada  voted  the  issue  of  army  bills  to 

*  The  entire  number  waa  3,783  infantry  of  the  line,  1,226  fencibles,  and  445 
artillery  —  5,454  of  all  arma.  There  were  also  one  or  two  armed  briga,  and  a 
few  gunboats  on  the  lakes. 


304  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

the  amount  of  £250,000,  and,  together  with  the  Upper  Canadian 
parhament,  took  vigorous  measures  for  the  organization  and 
drill  of  the  militia,  and  placed  them  at  the  disposal  of  the 
military  authorities.  The  employment  of  Indians  on  both  sides 
seems  to  have  been  an  unfortunate  necessity.  They  could  not 
be  induced  to  remain  neutral  when  war  was  raging,  and  their 
savage  instincts  often  led  to  acts  of  cruelty  of  which  the 
principals  in  the  conflict  bore  the  blame. 

On  the  declaration  of  war,  Major-General  Sir  Isaac  Brock,  a 
gallant  officer  and  skilful  civil  ruler,  who,  in  the  absence  of  Mr. 
Gore,  administered  the  Government  of  Upper  Canada,  resolved 
to  strike  the  first  blow.  He  ordered  an  attack  on  Fort  Michilli- 
mackinac,  an  important  post,  defended  by  seventy-five  men, 
which  commanded  the  entrance  to  Lake  Michigan.  It  was 
surprised  by  Captain  Roberts,  with  a  force  of  forty-five  regulars 
from  the  British  post  of  St.  Joseph,  on  Lake  Huron,  and  a  large 
number  of  voyageurs  and  Indians,  and  taken  without  the  loss 
of  a  man  (July  17).  Thus  was  a  valuable  strategic  position 
secured,  and  the  northwest  Indians  were  confirmed  in  their 
allegiance  to  the  British. 

The  American  plan  of  attack  was  to  invade  Canada  with  three 
armies,  on  the  Detroit  and  Niagara  frontiers,  and  by  way  of 
Lake  Champlain.  General  Hull,  on  the  12th  of  July,  crossed 
the  Detroit  River  at  Sandwich,  with  twenty-five  hundred  men. 
In  a  pompous  proclamation,  he  summoned  the  Canadians  to 
surrender,  ofiering  them  the  alternatives  of  "peace,  liberty, 
and  security,"  or  "war,  slavery,  and  destruction."  They 
spurned  his  ofiers  and  defied  his  threats.  Brock  issued  a 
counter-proclamation  at  Fort  George,  Niagara,  and  despatched 
Colonel  Proctor  with  a  small  body  of  troops  to  re-enforce  the 
garrison  of  three  hundred  men  that  occupied  the  dilapidated 
Fort  Maiden,  at  Amherstburg.  In  attempting  an  attack  upon 
the  fort,  Hull's  forces  received  a  severe  repulse  from  a  handful 
of  British  troops  and  Indians  jDOsted  at  the  River  Canard,  about 
three  miles  from  Amherstburg.  At  the  mouth  of  this  little 
river,  the  "  Queen  Charlotte,"  sloop-of-war,  armed  with 
eighteen  twenty-four   pounders,   closely  watched   the  enemy. 


THE   ]VAR   OF  1812-14.  305 

The  British  settlers  and  the  Indians  came  flocking  to  the  British 
standard,  the  latter  especially  being  a  cansc  of  extreme  terror 
to  Hull. 

Colonel  Proctor  now  pushed  a  force  across  the  Detroit  Eiver, 
routed  a  number  of  the  enemy,  captured  a  convoy  of  pro- 
visions and  General  Hull's  despatches,  and  cut  off  his  communi- 
cation with  Ohio.  Hull  was  completely  baffled.  He  had  met 
only  sturdy  opposition  instead  of  co-operation  from  the 
Canadians.  His  forces  were  weakened  by  disease,  encumbered 
by  the  sick,  and  almost  mutinous  through  discontent.  He 
therefore  recrossed  the  river  to  Detroit,  leaving  only  two 
hundred  and  fifty  men  in  a  small  fort  at  Sandwich,  who  were, 
however,  soon  afterward  withdrawn. 

Meanwhile,  General  Brock  hastened  to  the  St.  Clair  by  way 
of  Niagara  and  Lake  Erie,  with  all  the  forces  he  could  collect  on 
the  route.  A  council  of  war  was  held.  Tecumseh,  the  cele- 
brated Indian  chief,  who,  with  his  warriors,  had  excited  great 
terror  in  the  minds  of  the  Americans,  was  j^resent,  at  the 
request  of  Brock,  who  recognized  his  remarkable  military 
abilities.  Tecumseh,  sketched  on  a  piece  of  birch-bark,  a 
rough  plan  of  Detroit,  and  of  Hull's  defences.  The  British 
commander,  although  his  entire  force  amounted  to  only  seven 
hundred  regulars  and  militia,  and  six  hundred  Indians,  resolved 
to  attack  the  enemy,  numbering  twice  as  many,  and  entrenched 
behind  earthworks.  Brock,  therefore,  sent  a  summons  to  Hull 
to  surrender,  and,  knowing  his  intense  dread  of  the  Indians, 
intimated  that,  in  case  of  assault,  the  latter  might  be  beyond 
control.  Compliance  with  the  summons  being  refused,  a  can- 
nonade was  opened  on  Detroit  from  a  battery  on  the  Cana- 
dian shore,  and  under  cover  of  the  armed  vessels,  "  Queen 
Charlotte  "  and  "  Hunter,"  the  British  force  crossed  the  river. 
Forming  his  little  army  in  columns,  flanked  by  Indians, 
Brock  advanced  to  the  assault.  Before  he  reached  the  fort, 
however,  a  flag  of  truce  was  displayed.  A  capitulation  was 
soon  signed  which  surrendered  Hull's  entire  force  of  twenty- 
five  hundred  men,  thirty-three  cannon,  vast  military  stores,  an 
armed  brig,  a  strong  fort,  and  the  whole  State  of  Michigan, 


306  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

August  16.  This  surrender  was  a  cause  of  intense  chagrin  to 
the  Americans,  and  of  patriotic  exultation  to  the  Canadians, 
who  had  tlius  turned  a  hostile  invasion  into  a  glorious  victory. 
The  unfortunate  Hull,  with  his  officers  and  soldiers,  a  thousand 
in  number,  were  sent  prisoners  to  Montreal  and  Quebec.  He 
was  released  on  parole,  and  was  subsequently  tried  by  United 
States  court-martial  for  treason,  cowardice,  and  unsoldier-like 
conduct.  On  the  last  charge  he  was  found  guilty,  and  sen- 
tenced to  death ;  but  was  reprieved  on  account  of  his  services 
during  the  Eevolutionary  War. 

Brock  now  repaired  to  the  Niagara  frontier  which  was 
threatened  by  an  invasion  of  the  enemy.  The  people  of 
Canada  were  proud  of  the  young  hero,  who,  in  ten  days,  had 
marched  three  hundred  miles  through  a  difficult  country,  com- 
pelled the  surrender  of  an  entrenched  army  twice  as  great  as  his 
own,  and  of  a  country  as  large  as  the  province  of  which  he  was 
the  Governor.  The  achievement  of  Detroit  also  won  generous 
recognition  from  the  Imperial  authorities,  and  honours  and 
decorations  were  conferred  upon  him.  But  before  the  intelli- 
gence of  his  new  dignities  could  be  received,  his  heroic  spirit 
had  passed  away  from  earth. 

For  the  defence  of  the  menaced  Niagara  frontier.  Brock  had 
only  some  fifteen  hundred  men,  of  whom  at  least  one-half 
were  militia-men  and  Indians.  On  the 
American  side  of  the  river.  General  Van 
Eensselaer  had  assembled  a  force  of  six 
thousand  men  for  the  invasion  of  Canada. 
To  the  south  of  Lake  Ontario,  a  bold  es- 
carpment of  rock,  an  old  lake  margin,  runs 
across  the  country  from  west  to  east. 
Throuo^h  this  the  Niao;ara  River,  in  the 
course    of   ages,    has    worn    a    deep    and 

NIAGARA  FRONTIER.       gloQ^iy     gQj.gQ^  ^t    the     foot     of     thc      cliff 

nestled  on  the  west  side  the  hamlet  of  Queenston,  and  on  the 
east  the  American  village  of  Lewiston.  Here,  early  on  the 
cold  and  stormy  morning  of  October  the  thirteenth.  Van  Eens- 
selaer crossed  with  twelve  hundred  men,   under  cover  of  an 


THE   WAR    OF  1812  - 14.  307 

American  battery.  They  were  held  in  check  for  a  time  by  two 
companies  of  the  Forty-ninth  Regiment,  and  a  hundred  mili- 
tia, under  Captain  Dennis,  and  by  the  fire  of  two  small  cannon. 
A  part  of  the  invading  army  having  climbed  the  precipitous 
river-bank  by  a  j^ath  thought  to  be  impassable,  outflanked  the 
British  force,  and  gained  a  lodgement  on  the  table-land  at  the 
top  of  the  hill. 

General  Brock,  hearing  the  cannonade  at  Niagara,  seven 
miles  distant,  galloped  off  in  the  gray  of  the  morning,  with 
his  aides-de-camp.  Major  Glegg  and  Colonel  Macdonell,  to 
ascertain  if  it  were  a  feint  or  an  attack  in  force.  Half-way  up 
the  heights  was  a  battery  manned  by  twelve  men.  This  the 
Americans  had  captured,  and  on  it  had  raised  the  stars  and 
stripes.  Having  despatched  a  messenger  to  Major-General 
Sheaffe,  at  Fort  George,  to  send  up  reinforcements,  and  to  open 
fire  on  Fort  Niagara,  General  Brock  determined  to  recapture 
the  battery.  Placing  himself  at  the  head  of  a  company  of  the 
Forty-ninth,  he  charged  up  the  hill  under  a  heavy  fire.  The 
enemy  gave  way,  and  Brock,  by  the  tones  of  his  voice  and  his 
reckless  exposure  of  his  person,  inspirited  the  pursuit  of  his 
followers.  His  tall  figure,  and  conspicuous  valour,  attracted 
the  fire  of  the  American  sharpshooters,  and  he  fell  pierced 
through  the  breast  by  a  mortal  bullet.  *'  Don't  mind  mo  ! "  he 
exclaimed,  "push  on  the  York  volunteers;"  and,  with  his 
ebbing  life,  sending  a  love-message  to  his  sister  in  the  far-off 
Isle  of  Guernsey,  the  brave  soul  passed  away.  His  aide-de- 
camp. Colonel  Macdonell,  the  Attorney-General  of  Upper 
Canada,  a  promising  young  man  of  twenty-five,  was  mortally 
wounded  soon  after  his  chief,  and  died  next  day. 

Major-General  Sheaffe,  an  officer  of  American  birth,  now 
succeeded  Brock  in  command.  He  mustered,  with  re-enforce- 
ments from  Niagara  and  Queenston,  about  nine  hundred  men 
(of  whom  half  were  militia  and  Indians. )  By  a  flank  movement 
by  way  of  St.  David's,  he  gained  the  height,  and,  after  a  sharp 
action,  completely  routed  the  enemy.  The  York  volunteers 
stood  fire  like  veteran  soldiers,  and  the  Forty-ninth  fought  like 
tigers  to  avenge  the  death  of  their  beloved  commander.     At 


308  EISTOHrY  OF  CANADA. 

length,  after  an  engagement  which  had  lasted,  with  sever:;! 
interruptions,  for  more  than  seven  hours,  the  Americans  every- 
where gave  way.  Pursued  by  j^elling  Indians,  some,  clam- 
bering down  the  rugged  slope,  were  impaled  on  the  jagged 
pines ;  others,  attempting  to  swim  the  rapid  river,  were 
drowned.  Nine  hundred  and  fifty  men  surrendered  to  Sheaife, 
—  a  force  greater  than  his  own.  A  hundred  were  slain,  and 
many  were  wounded.  Among  the  prisoners  was  Colonel  Scott, 
afterwards  General  Scott,  the  hero  of  Mexico  and  Commander- 
in-Chief  of  the  United  States  armies. 

The  victory  of  Queenston  Heights,  glorious  as  it  was,  was 
dearly  bought  with  the  death,  at  the  early  age  of  forty-three, 
of  the  hero  of  Upper  Canada,  the  loved  and  honoured  Brock, 
and  of  the  brave  young  Macdonell.  Amid  the  tears  of  war- 
bronzed  soldiers,  and  even  of  stoical  Indians,  they  were  laid  in 
one  common  grave  at  Fort  George ;  while  the  half-mast  flags 
and  minute-guns  of  the  British  and  American  forts  testified  the 
honour  and  esteem  in  which  they  w^ere  held  by  friends  and  foes 
alike.  A  grateful  country  has  erected  on  the  scene  of  the 
victory,  —  one  of  the  gi-andest  sites  on  earth,  —  a  noble  monu- 
ment *  to  Brock's  memory ;  and  beneath  it,  side  by  side,  sleeps 
the  dust  of  the  heroic  chief  and  his  faithful  aide-de-camp,  — 
united  in  their  death,  and  not  severed  in  their  burial. 

A  month's  armistice  was  granted,  during  which  the  Ameri- 
cans strengthened  their  position,  and  collected  on  the  Niagara 
frontier,  between  the  Falls  and  Lake  Erie,  an  *<army  of  the 
centre,"  five  thousand  strong,  to  ojjpose  which  were  only  seven 
hundred  British  regulars  and  militia.     General  Smyth,  who 

*  The  first  monument,  erected  in  1824,  was  partially  destroyed  with  gun- 
powder in  1840,  by  a  miscreant  who  had  been  compelled  to  fly  from  the 
province  on  account  of  his  participation  in  the  rebellion  of  1837-38.  The  same 
year  an  immense  patriotic  gathering  was  held  upon  the  spot,  and  it  was  unan- 
imously resolved  to  erect  a  new  and  much  more  splendid  monument.  On  the 
13th  of  October,  1853,  the  foundation-stone  of  the  new  structure  was  laid  with 
imposing  ceremonies,  aud  the  remains  of  the  two  gallant  soldiers  were  re-in- 
terred on  the  scene  of  their  victory.  In  1859,  the  monument  was  inaugurated. 
It  is  a  fluted  column,  on  a  massive  jiedestal,  crowned  with  a  Corinthian  capital, 
on  which  stands  a  colossal  statue  of  General  Brock,  the  whole  rising  to  a 
height  of  one  hundred  and  eighty-five  feet.    It  was  built  by  the  voluntary 


THE   WAR   OF  1812 -U.  3O9 

had  succeeded  Van  Rensselaer  in  command,  issued  a  Napoleonic 
proclamation  summoning  his  *'  companions  in  arms  "  to  the 
conquest  of  Canada.  "Come  on,  my  heroes!"  it  concludes, 
"  when  you  attack  the  enemy's  batteries  let  your  rallying  word 
be,  *  The  cannon  lost  at  Detroit,  or  death.'"  At  length,  before 
daybreak  on  the  morning  of  November  the  twenty-eighth  —  a 
cold,  bleak  day — a  force  of  four  hundred  men,  in  fourteen 
scows,  crossed  the  Niagara  to  the  upper  end  of  Grand  Island, 
and  captured  a  four-gun  battery,  defended  by  sixteen  men  of 
the  Forty-ninth  Regiment.  The  Americans  recrossed  the  river, 
leaving  some  forty  men,  who  were  soon  all  captured  by  the 
British.  A  larger  force,  in  eighteen  scows,  now  attempted  to 
cross  the  river.  A  considerable  British  force  had,  meanwhile, 
rallied  from  Fort  Erie  and  Chippewa.  In  silence  they  awaited 
the  approach  of  the  American  flotilla.  As  they  came  within 
range,  a  ringing  cheer  burst  forth,  and  a  deadly  volley  of  mus- 
ketry was  poured  into  the  advancing  boats.  A  six-pounder, 
well  served  by  Captain  Ivirby,  shattered  two  of  the  boats  ;  and 
the  enemy,  thrown  into  confusion,  sought  the  shelter  of  their 
own  shore. 

General  Smyth  now  paraded  his  whole  force,  and  sent  a 
summons  for  the  surrender  of  Fort  Erie.  Colonel  Bishopp,  its 
commandant,  sarcastically  invited  him  to  "come  and  take 
it."  After  several  feints,  the  attempt  was  abandoned,  and  the 
army  went  into  winter  quarters.  Smyth,  a  gasconading  brag- 
gart, thus  kept  in  check  by  a  force  one-sixth  of  his  own,  was 
regarded  even  by  his  own  troops  with  contempt,  and  had  to  fly 

subscriptions  of  the  militia  and  Indians  of  Canada,  supplemented  by  a 
parliamentary  grant.  On  the  north  side  of  the  pedestal  is  the  following 
inscription :  — 

"  Upper  Canada  has  dedicated  this  monument  to  the  memory  of  the  late 
Major-General  Sir  Isaac  Brock,  K.  B.,  Provisional  Lieutenant-Governor  and 
Commander  of  the  Forces  in  this  Province,  whose  remains  are  deposited  in  the 
vault  beneath.  Opposing  the  invading  enemy,  he  fell  in  action  near  these 
heights  on  the  13th  of  October,  1812,  in  the  forty-third  year  of  his  age,  revered 
and  lamented  by  the  people  whom  he  governed,  and  deplored  by  the  Sovereign 
to  whose  service  his  life  had  been  devoted." 

The  cenotaph,  near  by,  marks  the  spot  where  Brock  fell.  Its  corner-stone 
was  laid  by  the  Prince  of  Wales  in  1860. 


310  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

from  the  camp  to  escape  their  indignation.  He  was  even  hooted 
and  fired  at  in  the  streets  of  Buffalo,  and  was,  without  trial, 
dismissed  from  the  army,  —  a  sad  collapse  of  his  vaunting 
ambition. 

In  the  meanwhile,  General  Dearborn,  with  an  army  of  ten 
thousand  men,  advanced  by  way  of  Lake  Champlain  to  the 
frontier.  The  Canadians  rallied  eii  masse  io  repel  the  invasion, 
barricaded  the  roads  with  felled  trees,  and  guarded  every  pass. 
On  the  20th  of  November,  before  day,  an  attack  was  made  by 
fourteen  hundred  of  the  enemy  on  the  British  outpost  at 
Lacolle,  near  Rouse's  Point ;  but  the  guard,  keeping  up  a  sharp 
fire,  withdrew,  and  the  Americans,  in  the  darkness  and  confu- 
sion, fiired  into  each  other's  ranks,  and  fell  back  in  disastrous 
and  headlong  retreat.  The  discomfited  General,  despairing  of 
a  successful  attack  on  Montreal,  so  great  was  the  vigilance  and 
valour  of  the  Canadians,  retired  with  his  "  Grand  Army  of  the 
North  "  into  safe  winter  quarters  behind  the  entrenchments  of 
Plattsburg.  A  few  ineffectual  border  raids  and  skirmishes,  at 
different  points  of  the  extended  frontier,  were  characteristic 
episodes  of  the  war  during  the  winter,  and,  indeed,  throughout 
the  entire  duration  of  hostilities. 

In  their  naval  engagements  the  Americans  were  more  suc- 
cessful. On  Lake  Ontario,  Commodore  Chauncey  equipped  a 
strong  fleet,  which  drove  the  Canadian  shipping  for  protection 
under  the  guns  of  the  Niagara,  York,  and  Kingston.  He 
generously  restored  the  private  plate  of  Sir  Isaac  Brock, 
captured  in  one  of  his  prizes.  At  sea,  the  American  frigates 
"  Constitution,"  and  "  United  States,"  well  armed  and  manned, 
shattered  and  captured  the  British  ships  •'  Guerriere,"  "  Mace- 
donian," and  "  Java,"  of  far  inferior  strength  and  equipment. 
The  brig  *'Wasp"  also  captured  the  sloop  "Frolic,"  but, 
with  her  prize,  was  soon  taken  by  H.  M.  S.  "  Poictiers." 

In  these  sea-fights  the  greatest  gallantry  was  exhibited  in  the 
dreadful  work  of  mutual  slaughter.  The  vessels  reeked  with 
blood  like  a  shambles,  and,  if  not  blown  up  or  sunk,  became 
floating  hospitals  of  deadly  wounds  and  agonizing  pain. 

In  the  United  States  Congress  this  unnatural  strife  of  kin- 


THE   WAR   OF  1S12-14.  311 

dred  races  was  vigorously  denounced  by  some  of  the  truest 
American  patriots.  Mr.  Quincy,  of  Massachusetts,  charac- 
terized it  as  the  '*  most  disgraceful  in  history  since  the  invasion 
of  the  buccaneers."  But  the  Democratic  majority  persisted  in 
their  stern  policy  of  implacable  war. 

The  patriotism  and  valour  of  the  Canadians  were,  however, 
fully  demonstrated.  With  the  aid  of  a  few  regulars,  the  loyal 
militia  had  repulsed  large  armies  of  invaders,  and  not  only 
maintained  the  inviolable  integrity  of  their  soil,  but  had  also 
conquered  a  considerable  portion  of  the  enemy's  territory. 


312  EISrORT  OF  CANADA. 


CHAPTER   XXIII. 

THE  CAilPAIGN  OF  1813. 

Liberal  Parliamentary  Grants  —  Construction  of  Navy  on  the  Lakes  —  Proctor 
at  French.  Town  —  Plan  of  Camiiaign  —  York  taken  by  General  Pike,  April 
27  —  Fort  George  taken  —  Vincent  Eetreats  to  Burlington  Heights,  May  27  — 
Americans  Eouted  at  Stony  Creek,  June  6  —  Lieutenant  Fitzgibbon  Captures 
Five  Hundred  Americans  at  Beaver  Dams,  June  28  —  Prevost  and  Yeo's 
Attack  on  Sackett's  Harbour,  May  29  —  Second  Capture  of  York  by  Chaun- 
cey,  July  23  —  Chauncey  is  Defeated  by  Yeo  off  Niagara,  August  10  —  Proc- 
tor Defeats  Harrison  at  Fort  Meigs,  May  5  —  Perry's  Victory  on  Lake  Erie, 
September  10  —  Proctor's  Defeat  at  Moravian  Town,  October  5  —  Death  of 
Tecumseh  —  Wilkinson's  Advance  on  Montreal  —  Battle  of  Chrysler's  Farm, 
November  12  —  Hampton's  Invasion  of  Canada  —  Repulsed  at  Chateauguay, 
October  26  —  McClure  Evacuates  and  Bums  Niagara,  December  10  —  Fort 
Niagara  Taken,  and  Lewiston,  Black  Eock,  and  Buffalo  Burned  December 
18-30 — Naval  Duel  of  "Chesapeake"  and  "Shannon,"  June  1  —  The  "En- 
terprise "  and  "  Boxer  "  —  The  Superiority  of  the  American  Navy. 

BY  both  belligerents  preparations  were  made  for  the  caip- 
paigu  of  1813  with  redoubled  zeal.  The  legislature  of 
Lower  Canada  authorized  the  issue  of  army  bills  to  the  amount 
of  £500,000,  and  that  of  Upper  Canada  passed  an  Act  prohib- 
iting, in  anticipation  of  a  scarcity  of  food,  the  exportation  of 
grain  and  restricting  the  distillation  of  spirits  therefrom.  The 
sale  of  liquor  to  Indians  was  also  prohibited.  During  the 
winter,  the  "King's  Regiment,"  of  New  Brunswick,  marched 
on  snow-shoes  through  the  wilderness,  by  way  of  the  valley  of 
the  St.  John  and  Lake  Temiscouta  to  the  St.  Lawrence.  They 
subsequently  rendered  great  service  during  the  campaign. 

The  Americans  gave  special  attention  to  the  construction 
of  strong,  if  roughly  finished,  vessels  on  lakes  Champlain, 
Ontario,  and  Erie.  The  British  Government,  severely  taxed 
by  the  war  with  Napoleon,  could  send  few  re-enforcements  to 
America,  and  an  incompetent  naval  administration  neglected 
the  equipment  of  vessels  for  the  lakes.  Very  tardily,  a  few 
vessels  were  constructed  at  Kingston,  York,  and  Chippewa,  at 


THE  CAMPAIGN   OF  1813.  813 

the  extravagant  cost,  it  is  said,  of  £1,000  per  ton.  To  a 
country  abounding  with  the  best  of  timber,  English  oak  and 
all  other  material  and  equipment  were  transported  across  the 
ocean,  even  to  the  superfluity  on  our  <<  unsalted  seas"  of  casks 
for  the  stowage  of  fresh  water.  All  military  stores  had  to  be 
conveyed  with  incredible  labour,  in  open  batteaux,  up  the 
rapids  of  the  St.  Lawrence  under  the  fire  of  the  gun-batteries 
on  the  American  shore.  More  than  one  brigade  of  boats  was 
attacked  and  captured,  or  defended  with  great  valour  and  loss 
of  life  on  both  sides. 

Even  during  the  rigours  of  the  winter  of  1812-13,  the 
horrors  of  war  did  not  cease.  Marauding  parties  from  Ogdens- 
burg  ravaged  the  Canadian  frontier,  and  carried  ofl'  fifty-two  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Brockville  prisoners.  A  severe  retaliation 
followed.  On  the  21st  of  February,  Major  Macdonell,  with 
four  hundred  and  eighty  men,  crossed  at  daylight  on  the  ice 
from  Prescott  to  Ogdeusburg,  and  in  an  hour  the  American 
fort,  defended  by  a  superior  force,  was  captured,  with  a  large 
amount  of  stores. 

In  the  West,  Colonel  Proctor  still  held  Detroit  for  the  British. 
General  Winchester,  in  the  middle  of  January,  attacked  and 
occupied  one  of  his  outposts  at  French  Town,  on  the  Raisin 
Eiver,  about  twenty-six  miles  from  Detroit  toward  the  south. 
Proctor  advanced  rapidly  with  eleven  hundred  militia,  regulars, 
and  Indians,  and,  at  daybreak,  fell  upon  the  American  camp. 
After  a  severe  action,  in  which  many  were  slain  amid  the 
wintry  snows,  Winchester  surrendered  with  five  hundred  men. 
As  the  reward  of  his  gallantry.  Proctor  was  raised  to  the  rank 
of  Brigadier-General.  The  American  loss  was  some  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty,  that  of  the  British  was  twenty-four  killed  and 
one  hundred  and  fifty  wounded.  The  victory,  however,  was 
tarnished  by  the  cruelty  of  the  Indian  allies  of  the  British, 
who,  unamenable  to  control,  massacred  several  of  the  wounded. 
The  American  Congress  bitterly  inveighed  against  the  atrocities 
of  the  savages.  It  also  ordered  the  execution  of  a  number  of 
Canadian  prisoners,  should  certain  American  militia,  captured 
by  the  British  and  sent  to   England  to  be  tried  as  traitors, 

40 


314  BISTORT  OF  CANADA. 

receive  any  harm.  Sir  George  Prevost,  the  Governor-General, 
threatened  to  execute  two  American  prisoners  for  every  Cana- 
dian shot  or  hanged  by  the  United  States  authorities.  The 
latter  menaced  similar  retaliation ;  and  thus,  under  the  exas- 
perating and  barbarizing  influence  of  war,  the  hostile  passions 
of  the  combatants  were  inflamed. 

The  American  plan  of  the  campaign  of  1813  included  the 
mastery  of  Lake  Ontario  and  Lake  Erie,  the  capture  of  the 
forts  on  the  Niagara  frontier,  at  York,  and  at  Kingston,  and  the 
reduction  of  the  entire  western  peninsula.  A  concentration  of 
forces  on  Montreal  and  Quebec,  it  was  thought,  would  then 
drive  the  union-jack  from  the  valley  of  the  St.  Lawrence. 

In  pursuance  of  this  design,  Commodore  Chauncey,  with 
fourteen  vessels  and  seventeen  hundred  men,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Generals  Dearborn  and  Pike,  left  Sackett's  Harbour, 
and  early  on  the  morning  of  April  27,  lay  off  the  shore  a  little 
to  the  west  of  the  town  of  York,  which  was  garrisoned  by  only 
six  hundred  men,  including  militia  and  dockyard  men,  under 
General  Sheaffe.  Under  cover  of  a  heavy  fire,  which  swejit 
the  beach,  the  Americans  landed,  drove  in  the  British  outposts, 
which  stoutly  contested  every  foot  of  ground,  and  made  a  dash 
for  the  dilapidated  fort,  W'hich  the  fleet  meanwhile  heavily 
bombarded.  Continual  re-enforcements  enabled  them  to  fight 
their  w^ay  to  within  two  hundred  yards  of  the  earthen  ramparts, 
when  the  defensive  fire  ceased.  General  Pike  halted  his 
troops,  thinking  the  fort  about  to  surrender.  Suddenly,  with 
a  shock  like  an  earthquake,  the  magazine  blew  up,  and  hurled 
into  the  air  two  hundred  of  the  attacking  column,  together  with 
Pike,  its  commander.  Several  soldiers  of  the  retiring  British 
garrison  were  also  killed.  This  act,  which  has  been  defended 
as  justifiable  in  order  to  prevent  the  powder  from  falling  into 
the  hands  of  the  enemy,  and  as  in  accordance  with  the  recog- 
nized code  of  war,  was  severely  denounced  by  the  Americans, 
and  imparted  a  tone  of  greater  bitterness  to  the  subsequent 
contest. 

The  town  being  no  longer  tenable,  General  Sheafie,  after 
destroying  the  naval  stores  and  a  vessel  on  the  stocks,  retreated 


THE   CAMPAIGN  OF  1813.  315 

with  the  regulars  towards  Kingston.  Colonel  Chewett,  and 
three  hundred  militia-men,  were  taken  prisoners,  the  public 
buildings  burned,  and  the  military  and  naval  stores  which 
escajjed  destruction,  were  carried  off.  In  this  action  the  Ameri- 
can loss  was  over  three  hundred,  and  that  of  the  British  nearly 
half  as  great.  For  abandoning  the  capital  Sheaffe  was  super- 
seded, as  Commander-in-Chief  in  Upper  Canada,  by  Major- 
General  De  Rottenburg. 

On  the  2d  of  May  Dearborn  re-embarked  his  forces,  and  the 
fleet  made  for  the  mouth  of  the  Kiagara.  It  was,  on  account 
of  adverse  winds,  six  days  before  he  could  land  his  troops 
under  the  protection  of  the  American  fort.  Here  he  remained 
inactive  for  three  weeks,  while  Chauncey  conveyed  the 
wounded  to  Sackett's  Harbour,  and  brought  up  re-enforce- 
ments. On  the  26th  of  May,  at  early  dawn,  Chauncey's  ships, 
some  fifteen  in  number,  lay  in  crescent  form  off  Fort  George,  at 
Niagara,  which  was  garrisoned  by  Colonel  Vincent  with  about 
fourteen  hundred  men.  In  consequence  of  the  Americans 
possessing  control  of  the  lake,  the  fort  was  ill-supplied  with 
powder  and  other  necessary  military  stores.  Under  a  heavy 
fire  from  Fort  Niagara,  on  the  American  side  of  the  river,  and 
from  the  fleet,  Fort  George  was  severely  injured  and  rendered 
almost  untenable.  The  following  morning  Colonel  Scott,  with 
eight  hundred  American  riflemen,  effected  a  landing.  They 
were  promptly  met  by  a  body  of  British  regulars  and  militia, 
and  compelled  to  take  refuge  under  cover  of  the  steep  bank 
which  lined  the  beach  to  the  north  of  the  town.  From  this 
position  they  kept  up  a  galling  fire  on  the  British  troops  in  the 
open  field.  The  broadsides  of  the  fleet  also  swept  the  plain, 
and  wrought  great  havoc  among  the  brave  militia  defending 
their  native  soil.  To  escape  the  deadly  sweep  of  the  cannon 
they  were  obliged  to  prostrate  themselves  in  the  slight  depres- 
sions in  the  plain.  Notwithstanding  the  inequality  of  numbers, 
the  main  body  of  the  enemy  were  three  times  repulsed  before 
they  could  gain  a  foothold  on  the  beach.  At  length,  after  three 
hours'  desperate  struggle,  a  hostile  force  of  six  thousand  men 


316  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

stood  upon  the  plain.*  Of  Vincent's  meagre  force,  fifty  were 
killed,  and  three  hundred  wounded  or  captured.  His  ammu- 
nition was  well-nigh  exhausted,  and  his  fort  almost  in  ruins. 
He  therefore  spiked  his  guns,  blew  up  his  shattered  works, 
and,  confronted  by  a  force  six  times  greater  than  his  own, 
retired  on  Queenston  Heights.  The  loss  of  the  enemy  was 
cue  hundred  and  fifty  killed  and  wounded. 

The  next  day,  having  withdrawn  the  garrisons  from  the 
frontier  forts  on  the  Niagara  Kiver,  he  retreated  with  sixteen 
hundred  men  toward  the  head  of  the  lake,  and  took  up  a  strong 
position  on  Burlington  Heights,  near  Hamilton.  Dearborn 
despatched  a  force  of  three  thousand  men,  with  two  hundred 
and  fifty  cavalry  and  nine  field-pieces,  under  Generals  Chandler 
and  Winder,  to  dislodge  him.  On  the  6th  of  June  they 
encamped  at  Stony  Creek,  seven  miles  from  Vincent's  lines. 
The  position  of  the  latter  was  critical.  Niagara  and  York  had 
both  been  captured.  Before  him  was  a  victorious  foe.  His 
ammunition  was  reduced  to  ninety  rounds.  He  was  extricated 
from  his  peril  by  a  bold  blow.  Colonel  John  Harvey,  having 
reconnoitered  the  enemy's  position,  proposed  a  night  attack. 
Vincent  heartily  co-operated.  At  midnight,  with  seven  hundred 
British  bayonets,  they  burst  upon  the  American  camp.  A 
fierce  fight  ensued,  in  which  the  enemy  were  utterly  routed. 
The  British,  unwilling  to  expose  their  small  number  to  a  still 
superior  force,  retired  before  daybreak,  with  four  guns  and  a 
hundred  prisoners,  including  both  of  the  American  generals. 
The  victory,  however,  was  purchased  with  the  loss  of  two 
hundred  men  killed  or  missing.  The  fugitives,  after  destroying 
their  camp  stores  and  leaving  the  dead  unburied,  retreated  to 
Forty  Mile  Creek,  where  they  efiected  a  junction  with  General 
Lewis,  advancing  to  their  aid  with  two  thousand  men.  At 
daybreak  on  the  8th  of  June,  the  American  camp  was  shelled 
by  Commodore  Yeo's  fleet.  The  enemy  retreated  to  Fort 
George,  abandoning  their  tents  and  stores,  which  were  captured 

*  The  details  of  the  account  above  given  were  narrated  to  the  author  by  an 
actor  in  the  events  described. 


TEE  CAMPAIGN  OF  1813.  317 

by  Vincent.  Their  baggage  shipped  by  batteaux  to  the  fort 
was  either  taken  by  the  fleet  or  abandoned  on  the  shore. 

The  invaders  soon  met  with  another  reverse.  Colonel 
Boerstler,  on  the  28th  of  June,  with  five  hundred  and  seventy 
men,  including  fifty  cavalry  and  two  field-pieces,  advanced  to 
dislodge  a  British  picket  at  Beaver  Dams  (near  Thorold). 
Mrs.  Secord,  an  heroic  Canadian  wife,  whose  husband  had  been 
wounded,  at  Queenston  Heights,  and  whose  house  had  been 
pillaged  by  the  Americans,  walked  twenty  miles  through  the 
woods  to  give  warning  of  the  attack.  Lieutenant  Fitzgibbon, 
with  a  handful  of  soldiers  and  two  hundred  Indians,  made  such 
a  skilful  disposition  of  his  forces  as  gave  the  impression  that 
he  had  a  large  body  of  troops  at  his  command.  After  a  sharp 
engagement  of  two  hours,  Fitzgibbon  summoned  Boerstler  to 
surrender,  which,  to  the  great  surprise  of  the  former,  he  did. 
The  number  of  prisoners  was  twice  that  of  their  captors,  and 
the  disgraceful  surrender  was  a  cause  of  intense  chagrin  to  the 
Americans.  The  opportune  arrival  of  Major  De  Heren,  with 
two  hundred  men,  furnished  a  sufficient  force  to  guard  the 
prisoners. 

Dearborn,  whose  forces  were  wasted  away  by  disease, 
famine,  and  the  fortunes  of  war,  to  about  four  thousand  men, 
was  now  beleagured  in  Fort  George  by  Vincent  with  less  than 
half  the  number  of  troops.  '  The  British  now  assumed  the 
ofiensive,  and  on  the  morning  of  the  American  national 
anniversary,  the  fourth  of  July,  a  small  force  of  Canadian 
militia  under  Colonel  Clark  crossed  at  daybreak  from  Chippewa 
to  Fort  Schlosser,  captured  the  guard,  and  carried  off  a  large 
quantity  of  provisions  and  ammunition,  of  which  they  were  in 
much  need. 

A  week  later.  Colonel  Bishopp,  with  two  hundred  and  forty 
regulars  and  militia,  crossed  before  day  from  Fort  Erie  to  the 
important  American  post  of  Black  Eock,  The  enemy  were 
completely  taken  by  surprise,  and  the  block-houses,  barracks, 
dock-yard,  and  one  vessel,  were  destroyed ;  and  seven  guns, 
two  hundred  stand  of  arms,  and  a  large  quantity  of  provisions 
captured.     A  strong  force  of  American  regulars  and  militia, 


318  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

and  a  number  of  Seneca  Indians,  soon  rallied  and  inflicted  a 
severe  loss  on  the  British  in  their  retreat.  The  gallant  Bishopp, 
a  promising  young  officer,  and  thirteen  men  were  killed ,  and  a 
large  number  wounded. 

In  accordance  with  the  British  policy  of  strengthening  the 
naval  force  on  the  lake,  Sir  James  Yeo,  a  distinguished  officer, 
with  four  hundred  and  fifty  seamen,  had,  early  in  the  month  of 
May,  arrived  at  Kingston.  Prompt  preparations  were  made 
for  active  demonstrations  against  the  enemy.  The  American 
fleet  being  at  the  time  engaged  in  the  attack  on  Fort  George,  at 
Niagara,  Sir  George  Prevost,  the  Governor-General  and  Com- 
mander-in-Chief, resolved  to  make  a  descent  on  Sackett's 
Harbour,  the  American  naval  station  at  the  foot  of  Lake 
Ontario.  On  May  27th,  the  day  of  the  capture  of  Fort 
George,  Sir  James  Yeo,  with  seven  armed  vessels  and  a  thou- 
sand men,  under  the  personal  command  of  Sir  George  Prevost, 
sailed  from  Kingston  to  destroy  the  shipping  and  stores  of  that 
principal  American  naval  depot  on  the  lakes.  After  the  troops 
had  been  placed  in  barges  for  the  attack,  Prevost,  having 
reconnoitered  the  works,  deemed  them  too  strong  for  the  force 
at  his  command,  and  gave  orders  for  an  inglorious  return  to 
Kingston.  A  couple  of  scores  of  Indians  in  their  bark  canoes, 
however,  so  terrified  a  party  of  seventy  American  troops,  that 
they  surrendered  to  the  British.  Sir  George,  finding  the  foe 
less  formidable  than  he  feared,  decided  on  an  attack  the 
following  day.  But  his  impromptitude  proved  fatal  to  his 
design.  The  delay  gave  time  for  the  militia  to  rally,  and  the 
landing  of  the  British  was  stoutly  opposed.  Nevertheless,  the 
assault  was  successful ;  the  Americans  everywhere  gave  way, 
and  had  already  fired  the  barracks,  naval  stores,  and  shipping, 
when,  to  the  intense  chagrin  of  his  victorious  troops,  the  over- 
cautious Prevost  ordered  a  retreat.  He  justified  his  action  by 
his  lack  of  artillery  to  batter  the  block-houses,  and  mistook,  it 
is  said,  the  commotion  of  the  enemy's  flight  for  that  of 
re-enforcements.  The  fugitive  Americans  returned  and  rescued 
from  the  flames  a  large  vessel  on  the  stocks.  The  loss  of  naval 
stores,  however,  was  great,  including  those  just  captured  at 


THE  CAMPAIGN  OF  1813.  319 

York.  The  British  loss  was  one  officer  and  forty-seven  men 
killed  and  twelve  officers  and  nearly  two  hundred  men  wounded 
or  missing.  The  loss  of  the  enemy  was  correspondingly  heavy. 
The  country,  however,  was  greatly  disappointed  to  have  victory 
snatched  from  the  British  arms  at  the  very  hour  of  its  achieve- 
ment through  the  incompetence  —  no  milder  phrase  can  be 
used  —  of  the  commander-in-chief.  It  was  felt  that  the  gallant 
Brock  had  not  yet  found  his  successor. 

Sir  James  Yeo  made  another  attempt  to  surprise  Sackett's 
Harbour  and  destroy  the  American  ship  "Pike,"  which  was 
being  fitted  out  for  active  service.  The  design  was  divulged, 
however,  by  two  deserters,  and  its  accomplishment  thus  frus- 
trated. 

In  the  month  of  July,  Commodore  Chauncey  again  appeared 
on  Lake  Ontario,  with  a  largely  augmented  American  fleet. 
With  Colonel  Scott  and  a  force  of  infantry  and  artillery,  he 
sailed  for  Burlington  Heights,  to  destroy  a  quantity  of  British 
stores  at  that  place,  which  was  the  principal  depot  of  Vincent's 
army.  A  body  of  Glengary  Fencibles  had  been  sent  from  York 
to  protect  the  depot,  thus  leaving  the  capital  defenceless. 
Chauncey  therefore  sailed  for  York,  and  Scott,  landing  without 
opposition  on  the  23d  of  July,  burned  the  barracks,  and  such 
public  buildings  as  had  previously  escaped,  broke  open  the  jail, 
and  plundered  both  private  and  public  stores.  Chauncey  then 
sailed  for  the  Niagara.  On  the  8th  of  August,  he  came  out  of  the 
river  to  give  battle  to  Yeo's  fleet  of  six  vessels  —  less  than  half 
his  own  number.  A  running  fight  of  two  days'  duration  ensued. 
In  endeavouring  to  escape  from  the  British,  two  American 
vessels,  the  **  Scourge,"  of  eight,  and  the  *'  Hamilton,"  of  nine 
guns,  capsized  under  press  of  sail,  and  went  to  the  bottom  with 
all  on  board,  except  sixteen  men,  who  were  rescued  by  the 
boats  of  the  British  fleet.  Chauncey  lost  two  other  vessels  by 
capture,  and  was  glad  again  to  seek  refuge  in  Sackett's  Harbour. 

On  the  28th  of  September  the  rival  fleets  again  met  in  hostile 
encounter,  after  manoeuvering  for  several  days  with  scarcely  the 
exchange  of  a  shot.  A  sharp  engagement  between  the  flagships 
"Wolfe"  and  "Pike,"  each  commemorating  the  name  of  a 


320  HISTORY  OF  CAXADA. 

slain  commander,  now  ensued.  The  "Wolfe"  lost  her  main 
and  mizzen  topmasts,  and  but  for  the  interposition  of  the 
*'  Eoyal  George  "  between  herself  and  the  "  Pike,"  must  have 
surrendered.  As  it  was,  Yeo,  with  his  fleet,  took  refuge  under 
Burlington  Heights,  and  Chauncey  stood  off  for  Sackett's 
Harbour,  capturing  on  the  way  five  out  of  seven  small  vessels 
from  York,  together  with  two  hundred  and  fifty  men  of 
De  Watteville's  regiment,  intended  to  strengthen  the  garrison 
at  Kingston. 

lu  the  meanwhile  stirring  events  were  transpiring  in  the 
West.  General  Harrison,  notwithstanding  the  disastrous  defeat 
of  Winchester,  was  determined  if  possible  to  drive  the  British 
out  of  JNIichigan.  For  this  purpose  he  had,  early  in  the  spring, 
established  a  rendezvous  at  Fort  Meigs,  on  the  Miami  River, 
near  the  western  extremity  of  Lake  Erie,  and  formed  a  depot 
of  stores  and  provisions.  The  expense  of  victualling  his  army 
was  enormous.  It  is  estimated  that  every  barrel  of  flour  cost 
the  American  Government  a  hundred  dollars.  Stores  of  all 
kinds  had  to  be  carried  on  the  backs  of  pack-horses  through  an 
almost  pathless  wilderness,  and  few  of  the  animals  survived 
more  than  one  journey.  It  is  estimated  that  the  transport  of 
each  cannon  to  the  lakes  cost  a  thousand  dollars. 

In  the  month  of  May,  Colonel  Proctor,  with  about  a  thousand 
regulars  and  militia  and  as  many  Indians,  who  were  led  by  the 
brave  chief,  Tecumseh,  invested  the  fort.  But  the  small  field- 
guns  of  the  assailants  could  make  little  impression  against  the 
earthworks,  and  the  Indians,  however  skilful  in  forest  warfare, 
could  not  be  induced  to  make  an  assault  upon  an  entrenched 
enemy. 

Harrison,  being  re-enforced  by  twelve  hundred  men,  made  a 
vigorous  sally ;  but,  after  a  temporary  success,  he  was  driven 
back  with  the  loss  of  seven  hundred  men,  killed  or  wounded. 
Several  of  the  prisoners,  it  is  alleged,  were  massacred  by  the 
implacable  Indians,  notwithstanding  the  most  strenuous  efforts 
to  save  them,  of  Tecumseh  and  the  British  soldiers.  A  number 
of  the  latter  were  wounded  and  one  was  killed  in  endeavouring 
to  protect  the  prisoners.     This  tragical  circumstance  stained  the 


rnE   CAMPAIGX  OF  1813.  321 

laurels  of  Proctor's  victory.  In  a  subsequent  attack  on  the 
American  fbrt  at  Sandusky,  Proctor  was  less  successful.  He 
was  repulsed  with  heavy  loss  ;  his  fickle  Indian  allies  returned 
to  their  homes,  and  he  was  compelled  to  fiiU  back  upon  the 
feeble  fortifications  of  Amherstburg. 

Meanwhile,  two  squadrons  were  preparing  to  contest  the 
supremacy  of  Lake  Erie.  Perry,  the  American  commodore, 
had  nine  vessels  well-manned  with  experienced  seamen,  to  the 
number  of  nearly  six  hundred,  from  the  now  idle  merchant 
marine  of  the  United  States.  Barclay,  the  British  captain,  had 
only  fifty  sailors  to  six  vessels,  the  rest  of  the  crow  being  made 
up  of  two  hundred  and  forty  soldiers  and  eighty  Canadians. 
After  alternately  blockading  each  other  in  the  harbours  of 
Presqu'  Isle  and  Amherstburg,  the  hostile  fleets  met  on  the  10th 
of  September  in  the  shock  of  battle,  off  Put-in  Bay,  at  the 
western  end  of  Lake  Erie.  Perry's  flagship  soon  struck  her 
colours,  but  Barclay,  his  own  ship  a  wreck,  could  not  even 
secure  the  prize.  Through  the  lack  of  naval  skill  of  the 
inexperienced  landsmen,  the  British  ships  fouled,  and  were 
helplessly  exposed  to  the  broadsides  of  the  enemy.  The 
heavier  metal  of  Perry's  guns  soon  reduced  them  to  unmanage- 
able hulks.  The  carnage  was  dreadful.  In  three  hours,  all 
their  officers  and  half  of  their  crews  were  killed  or  wounded. 
Perry  despatched  to  Washington  the  sententious  message : 
*'  We  have  met  the  enemy.     They  are  ours." 

The  result  of  this  defeat  was  most  disastrous.  All  the 
advantages  resulting  from  Brock's  victory  over  Hull  in  the 
previous  year  were  forfeited.  Michigan  was  lost  to  the  British, 
not  again  to  be  recovered.  Proctor,  short  of  provisions,  cut  off 
from  supplies,  exposed  in  flank  and  rear,  and  attacked  in  force 
in  front,  could  only  retreat.  He  dismantled  the  forts  at  Detroit 
and  Amherstburg,  destroyed  the  stores  and  public  buildings, 
and  fell  back  along  the  Thames  with  eight  hundred  and  thirty 
white  men,  and  five  hundred  Indians,  under  Tecumseh.  Harrison 
followed  rapidly  with  three  thousand  five  hundred  men,  several 
hundred  of  whom  were  cavalry,  of  which  Proctor  had  none. 
He  fell  upon  the  British  rear-guard  at  Moraviautown,  October 

41 


322  BISTORT  OF  CANADA.  . 

4,  and  captured  over  a  hundred  prisoners,  and  all  the  stores 
and  ammunition.  Proctor  was  forced  the  following  day  to  fight 
at  a  disadvantage,  on  ill-chosen  ground.  He  had  also  neglected 
to  break  down  the  bridges  behind  him,  or  to  defend  his  position 
with  breastworks,  and  only  six  hundred  men  were  brought  into 
action  against  sixfold  odds.  The  mounted  Kentucky  riflemen 
rode  through  and  through  the  British  ranks,  dealing  death  on 
every  side.  The  brave  Tecumseh  was  slain  at  the  head  of  his 
warriors.  He  had  fought  desperately,  even  against  the  mounted 
riflemen.  Springing  at  their  leader,  Colonel  Johnson,  he 
dragged  him  to  the  earth.  The  dragoons  rallied  around  their 
chief,  and  Tecumseh  fell,  pierced  with  bullets.  The  rout  was 
complete.  Proctor,  with  a  shattered  remnant  of  his  troops, 
retreated  through  the  forest  to  Burlington  Heights,  where,  with 
two  hundred  and  forty  war-wasted  men,  he  effected  a  junction 
with  Vincent's  command,  which  had  been  compelled  for  a  time 
to  raise  the  siege  of  Fort  George,  and  take  up  its  old  position. 
Harrison,  the  American  general,  assumed  the  nominal  govern- 
ment of  the  w^estern  part  of  Upper  Canada. 

The  Americans  were  now  free  to  concentrate  their  efforts  on 
the  reduction  of  Kingston  and  Montreal.  "Wilkinson,  Com- 
mander-in-Chief of  the  forces  on  the  Niagara  and  Upper  St. 
Lawrence  frontiers,  received  instruction  to  effect  a  junction 
with  the  "  Army  of  the  North"  about  to  advance  from  Lake 
Champlain  for  the  subjugation  of  Lower  Canada.  There  were 
comparatively  few  British  troops  in  the  lower  jDrovince,  and 
only  three  thousand  active  militia  under  General  Sheaffe,  for 
the  protection  of  a  thousand  miles  of  frontier. 

In  pursuance  of  the  American  plan  of  invasion,  on  the  24th 
of  October,  an  army  of  nine  thousand  men,  with  ample  artil- 
lery, under  General  Wilkinson,  rendezvoused  at  Grenadier 
Island,  near  Sackett's  Harbour;  but  the  stone  forts  of  Kings- 
ton, garrisoned  by  two  thousand  men  under  De  Eottenburg, 
protected  that  important  naval  station  from  attack  even  by  a 
fourfold  force.  Wilkinson,  therefore,  embarking  his  army  in 
tlirce  hundred  batteaux,  protected  by  twelve  gun-boats,  in  the 
bleak  November  weather  threaded  the  watery  mazes   of  the 


THE   CAMPAIGN   OF  1S13.  303 

Thousand  Islands  in  his  menacing  advance  on  Montreal.  A 
British  "corps  of  observation,"  eight  hundred  strong,  under 
Colonel  Morrison,  followed  the  enemy  along  the  river-bank. 
A  mimber  of  gun-boats  also  hung  on  the  rear  of  the  American 
flotilla,  and  kept  up  a  teasing  fire,  to  their  great  annoyance  and 
injury.  "Wilkinson  slowly  made  his  way  down  the  St.  Law- 
rence, halting  his  army  from  time  to  time,  to  repel  attack. 
Xear  Prescott,  his  flotilla  of  batteaux  sufiered  considerably 
by  a  cannonade  from  the  British  batteries  as  they  were  pass- 
ing that  place  on  a  moonlight  night.  The  molestation  that  he 
received  from  INIorrison's  corps  and  from  the  loyal  local  militia, 
was  so  great  that  he  was  forced  to  land  strong  brigades  on  the 
Canadian  shore  in  order  to  secure  a  passage  for  his  boats.  At 
the  head  of  the  Long  Sault  Rapids,  Wilkinson  detached  Gen- 
eral Boyd  with  a  force  of  over  two  thousand  men,  to  crush  the 
opposing  British  corps.  The  collision  took  place  at  Chrysler's 
Farm,  —  a  name  thenceforth  of  potent  memory.  The  battle- 
ground was  an  open  field,  with  the  river  on  the  right,  the 
woods  on  the  left.  For  two  hours  the  conflict  raged.  But 
Canadian  valour  and  discipline  prevailed  over  twofold  odds, 
and  the  Americans  retreated  to  their  boats,  leaving  behind  one 
of  their  guns  captured  by  the  British.  Their  loss  in  this 
engagement  was  over  three  hundred  killed  and  wounded,  — 
more  than  twice  that  of  their  opponents.  Wilkinson's  disor- 
ganized force  precipitately  descended  the  Long  Sault  Rapids, 
and  awaited  at  St.  Regis  the  approach  of  Hampton's  army.  It 
was  destined  to  wait  in  vain. 

The  invasion  of  Canada  by  way  of  Lake  Champlaiu  had  also 
been  attended  with  serious  disasters.  To  these  events  we  will 
now  briefly  advert.  On  the  morning  of  the  3d  of  June  the  British 
commandant  at  Isle-aux-Noix  beheld,  sailing  up  the  narrows  of 
the  lake  to  attack  his  fort,  two  American  vessels.  He  promptly 
manned  two  small  gim-boats,  and  despatched  a  land  force, 
which,  together,  soon  compelled  the  surrender  of  the  American 
vessels,  — two  staunch  craft  of  eleven  guns  each,  together  with 
a  hundred  prisoners.  The  "Growler"  and  "Eagle,"  such 
were  their  designations,  were  promptly  re-named  the  "  Shau- 


324 


HISTORY  OF  CAXADA. 


non"  and  "  Blake,"  and  employed  in  active  service  against  the 
enemy.  They  were  manned  by  the  crew  of  the  brig-of-war 
"  Wasp ,"  lying  at  Quebec,  and,  on  the  29th  of  July,  sailed 
with  a  force  of  nine  hundred  regulars  and  militia  under  Colonel 
Murray  for  Plattsburg,  on  Lake  Champlain,  where  was  an 
entrenched  camp,  guarded  by  fifteen  hundred  American  militia. 
Here  Murray  captured  or  destroyed  an  immense  quantity  of 
stores,  and  burned  the  newly-built  barracks  for  four  thousand 
men.  The  "Shannon  "and  "Blake,"  with  the  gun-boats, 
proceeded  to  Burlington  and  destroyed  four  American  vessels, 
leaving  the  British  masters  of  the  lake. 

Early  in  September,  General  Hampton,  with  a  well-appointed 
army  of  five  thousand  men,  advanced  from  Lake  Champlain, 
with  a  view  to  a  junction  with  Wilkinson's  army,  and  a  com- 
bined attack  on  Montreal.  On  the  21st  of  October  he  crossed 
the  border,  and  pushed  forward  his  forces  along  both  sides  of 
the  Chateauguay  Eiver.  Sir  George  Prevost  called  for  a  levy 
of  the  sedentary  militia,  who  rallied  loyally  for  the  defence  of 
their  country.     Colonel  De  Salaberry,  with  four  hundred  Volti- 

geurs,  —  sharpshooters  every  one, 
—  took  up  a  strong  position  at 
the  junction  of  the  Chateauguay 
with  the  Outarde,  defended  by  a 
breastwork  of  logs  and  abattis. 
General  Izzard,  with  a  column 
three  thousand  five  hundred 
strong,  attempted  to  dislodge 
him.  The  Yoltigeurs  held  the 
enemy  well  in  check,  till  they 
were  in  danger  of  being  sur- 
rounded by  sheer  force  of  num- 
bers. By  a  clever  ruse,  De  Salaberry  distributed  his  buglers 
widely  through  the  woods  in  his  rear,  and  ordered  them  to 
sound  the  charge.  The  enemy,  thinking  themselves  assailed 
in  force,  everywhere  gave  way,  and  retreated  precipitately 
from  the  field.  Hampton  soon  retired  across  the  borders  to  his 
entrenched  camp  at  Plattsburg.     Wilkinson,  sick  in  body  and 


SALAP.EKKY. 


THE  CAMPAIGX  OF  1813.  325 

chagrined  in  mind,  learning  the  shameful  defeat  of  the  "  Grand 
Army  of  the  North,"  abandoned  the  idea  of  further  advance  on 
Montreal,  scnttled  his  boats  and  batteanx,  and  retired  into 
winter  quarters  on  the  Salmon  Eiver,  within  the  United  States 
boundary.  Here  he  formed  an  entrenched  camp,  and  sheltered 
his  defeated  army  in  wooden  huts  all  the  following  spring. 

Thus  the  patriotism  and  valour  of  some  fifteen  hundred 
Canadian  troops  hurled  back  from  our  country's  soil  two  invad- 
ing armies  of  tenfold  strength,  and  made  the  names  of  Chrys- 
ler's Farm  and  Chateauguay  memories  of  thrilling  power,  aud 
pledges  of  the  inviolable  liberty  of  our  land. 

We  now  return  to  trace  the  progress  of  events  in  Upper 
Canada.  After  the  British  disasters  on  Lake  Erie,  and  at 
jNIoravian  Town,  Sir  George  Prevost  instructed  Vincent  to 
fall  back  on  Kingston,  abandoning  the  western  peninsula  to  the 
enemy,  a  desperate  resolve,  only  to  be  adopted  in  the  last 
extremity.  At  a  council  of  war  held  at  Burlington  Heights, 
however,  it  was  wisely  decided  by  Vincent  and  his  officers  to 
stand  their  ground  as  long  as  possible.  Colonel  McClure,  the 
commandant  of  the  American  force,  was  strongly  posted  at 
Twenty  Mile  Creek,  and  his  foraging  parties  ravaged  the  coun- 
try, and  pillaged  the  inhabitants.  Vincent  detached  Colonel 
Murray,  with  a  force  of  five  hundred  regulars  and  Indians,  to 
drive  in  the  maurading  parties  of  the  enemy. 

McClure,  fearing  an  attack  in  force,  fell  back  on  Niagara  and 
Fort  George,  and,  learning  the  disastrous  result  of  the  cam- 
paign in  Lower  Canada,  resolved  to  evacuate  the  fort  and 
abandon  the  country.  This  he  accordingly  did,  with  all  his 
troops,  on  the  10th  of  December,  and  with  such  precipitancy 
that  he  left  behind  him  all  his  tents  and  stores.  His  retreat 
was  accompanied  by  an  act  of  inhuman  barbarity  that  has  left 
an  indelible  stigma  upon  his  name.  The  frost  had  set  in  early 
and  severe.  The  snow  lay  deep  upon  the  ground.  Yet  at 
thirty  minutes'  warning,  of  a  hundred  and  fifty  houses  in 
Niagara,  he  fired  all  save  one,  and  drove  four  hundred  helpless 
women  and  children,  amid  the  icy  rigours  of  a  Canadian  Aviu- 
ter,  to  seek  shelter  in  the  log-huts  of  the  scattered  settlers,  or 


326  HISTORY  OF  CAXADA. 

in  the  bark  wigwams  of  the  wandering  Indians.  There  was 
scarce  time  to  rescue  the  nursling  babe,. and  the  aged  and 
infirm  from  the  doomed  dwellings.  The  wife  of  Counsellor 
Dickson  lay  on  a  sick-bed.  Her  husband  was  a  prisoner  on 
the  American  side  of  the  river.  The  unfortunate  lady  "was 
carried,  bed  and  all,  and  placed  in  the  snow  before  her  own 
door,  where,  shivering  with  cold,  she  beheld  her  house  and  all 
that  was  in  it  consumed  to  ashes."  *  Of  the  valuable  library, 
which  had  cost  between  five  and  six  hundred  pounds  sterling, 
scarcely  a  book  escaped. 

The  British,  who  immediately  occupied  the  desolated  town, 
soon  wreaked  a  grim  revenge  for  the  atrocious  act.  In  a  night 
attack  by  Colonel  Murray,  with  five  hundred  men,  Fort  Nia- 
gara, on  the  American  side  of  the  river,  was  surprised,  while 
its  garrison  was  wrapped  in  sleep,  December  18.  The  sentries 
were  bayoneted,  the  guard  overpowered,  and  the  garrison 
awoke  from  slumber  to  a  death-wrestle  with  an  exasperated  foe. 
Three  hundred, prisoners,  three  thousand  stand  of  arms,  and  an 
immense  quantity  of  stores  were  captured.  The  British  loss 
was  eleven ;  that  of  the  enemy,  seventy-nine  killed  and 
wounded. 

In  ruthless  retaliation  for  the  burning  of  Niagara,  the  British 
ravaged  the  American  frontier,  and  gave  to  the  flames  the 
thriving  towns  of  Lewiston,  Manchester,  Black  Eock  and 
Bufi'alo.  At  the  latter  place,  an  American  force,  two  thousand 
strong,  made  a  stout  resistance,  but  was  defeated,  with  the  loss 
of  four  hundred  men,  by  the  British,  with  only  one-third  the 
number  of  troops,  December  30. 

Thus  the  holy  Christmas-tide,  God's  ftledge  of  peace  and 
good-will  toward  men,  rose  upon  a  fair  and  fertile  frontier 
scathed  and  blackened  by  wasting  and  rapine,  and  the  year 
went  out  in  "tears  and  misery,  in  hatred  and  flames  and 
blood." 

The  commerce  of  the  United  States  was  completely  crippled 
by  the  blockade  of  her  ports,  her  revenue  foiling  from  $24,- 

*  James,  quoted  by  Aucliinleck. 


THE   CAMPAIGN   OF  1813.  327 

000,000  to  $8,000,000.  Admiral  Cockburn  swept  the  Atlantic 
coast  with  his  fleet,  destroying  arsenals  and  naval  stores 
vrherever  his  gun-boats  could  penetrate.  Great  Britain  also 
recovered  her  old  prestige  in  more  than  one  stubborn  sea-fight 
with  a  not  unworthy  foe.  On  a  lovely  morning  in  June,  the 
United  States  frigate  "  Chesapeake,"  of  forty-nine  guns,  stood 
out  from  Boston  harbour  amid  the  holiday  cheers  of  a  sympa- 
thizing multitude,  to  answer  the  challenge  to  a  naval  duel  of 
II.  M.  S.  "  Shannon,"  of  fifty-two  guns.  They  were  soon 
locked  muzzle  to  muzzle  in  deadly  embrace,  belching  shot  and 
grape  through  each  other's  sides,  while  the  streaming  gore 
incarnadined  the  waves.  The  British  boarders  swarmed  on  the 
"Chesapeake's"  deck,  and  soon,  with  nearly  half  her  crew 
killed  or  wounded,  she  struck  her  colours  to  the  red-cross  flag. 
In  five  days  the  shattered  and  blood-stained  vessels  crept 
together  into  Halifax  harbour,  the  American  captain,  the  gal- 
lant Lawrence,  lying  in  his  cabin  cold  in  death,  the  British 
commander,  the  chivalric  Broke,  raving  in  the  delirium  of  a 
desperate  wound.  The  slain  captain  was  borne  to  his  grave 
amid  the  highest  honours  paid  to  his  valour  by  a  generous  foe. 

"With  varying  fortunes  these  sea-fights  were  waged.  Shortly 
after  the  duel  of  the  "  Chesapeake  "  and  "Shannon,"  the  U. 
S.  frigate  "  Argus,"  of  twenty  guns,  struck  to  H.  M.  brig 
"Pelican,"  of  eighteen  guns.  A  few  days  later,  the  British 
brig  "  Boxer,"  of  fourteen  guns,  surrendered  to  the  U.  S.  brig 
"Enterprise,"  of  sixteen  guns.  In  one  quiet  grave,  over- 
looking Casco  Bay,  their  rival  captains  lie  buried  side  by  side. 

The  clipper-built  American  vessels  were  generally  superior 
to  their  slow-sailing  British  antagonists,  constructed  on  anti- 
quated models.  They  were  thus  able  to  manoeuvre  more 
nimbly,  to  get  the  weather-gage,  and  rake  with  their  lono-- 
range  guns  the  British  vessels  with  fearful  eflect  before  the 
latter  could  bring  their  cannon  to  bear.  The  United  States 
vessels  were  also  better  manned,  because  her  idle  merchant 
marine  placed  a  large  number  of  unemployed  sailors  at  the 
disposal  of  the  Government, 


328  BISTORT  OF  CANADA. 


CHAPTER    XXrV. 

CAJIPAIGN    OF    1814. 

Money  Grants  and  Army  Stores  for  tlie  War  —  Impeachment  of  Chief  Justices 
Scwell  and  Monk  —  Colonial  Confederation  Suggested  —  Proffered  Mediation 
of  Eussia  —  General  Wilkinson  Repulsed  at  Lacolle  Mill,  March  13  —  Yeo 
and  Drummond  Capture  Oswego,  May  6  —  Eiall  is  Defeated  at  Chippewa, 
July  5  —  He  is  Ee-enforced  by  Drummond  —  Battle  of  Lundy's  Lane,  July 
25  —  Sanguinary  Conflict  —  Eout  of  the  Americans  —  Night  Attack  on  Fort 
Erie  —  Murderous  Explosion,  August  13  —  Desperate  Sortie  —  Fort  Erie 
Evacuated  —  Prairie  du  Chien  Captured  —  Maine  Surrenders  to  the  British 
—  Prevost  Advances  against  Plattsburg  —  British  Fleet  on  Lake  Champlaiu 
Defeated  —  Provost's  Inglorious  Eetreat,  August  11  —  The  Launch  of  the 
"St.  Lawrence"  gives  the  British  Control  of  Lake  Ontario  —  Admiral  Cock- 
hurn  Captures  Washington  and  Bums  the  Capitol,  August  23  —  Alexandria 
Eausomed  —  Baltimore  Menaced  —  Peace  Concluded  at  Ghent,  December 
24  —  General  Packenham  Defeated  by  Jackson  at  New  Orleans,  January  8, 
1815  —  Effects  of  the  War  on  Canada  and  the  United  States  —  Valour  and 
Patriotism  of  the  Canadians. 

PREPAEATIONS  for  the  campaign  of  1814  were  made  on 
both  sides  with  unabated  energy.  The  legislature  of 
Lower  Canada  increased  the  issue  of  army  bills  to  the  amount 
of  £1,500,000,  and  that  of  the  upper  jDrovince  voted  a  liberal 
appropriation  for  military  expenditure,  and  increased  the  eiE- 
ciency  of  the  militia  system.  Stores  of  every  kind,  and  in 
vast  quantities,  -svere  forwarded  from  Quebec  and  ^Montreal  by 
brigades  of  sleighs  to  Kingston  as  a  centre  of  distribution  for 
western  Canada.  A  deputation  of  Indian  chiefs  from  the  West 
was  received  at  the  castle  of  St.  Louis,  and  sent  home  laden 
with  presents  and  confirmed  in  their  allegiance  to  the  British. 

The  Quebec  legislature  now  revived  the  political  strife, 
dormant  since  the  beginning  of  the  war,  by  the  impeachment 
of  Chief  Justices  Sewell  and  Monk,  for  having  invaded  the 
privileges  of  parliament  by  the  advice  given  Sir  James  Craig 
for  its  dissolution  and  for  the  imprisonment  of  the  members, 
and  for  other  alles^ed  civil  misdemeanours.     Governor  Prevost 


THE  CAMPAIGN   OF  1814.  329 

sustained  tlicm  in  office.  Chief  Justice  Sewell  went  to  Eng- 
land in  bis  OAvn  defence,  and  was  received  with  favour  at  the 
Colonial  Office.  He  submitted  to  the  Government  a  scheme 
for  the  confederation  of  all  the  British  North  American 
colonics.  The  proposition  found  favour  in  high  quarters  ;  but 
it  was  jn-emature,  and  not  till  half  a  century  later  was  the 
project  consummated. 

Early  in  the  year,  the  Emperor  of  Russia  offered  to  mediate 
between  the  belligerents  in  the  interests  of  peace.  Great 
Britain  declined  his  interference,  but  proposed  direct  negotia- 
tions with  the  United  States.  The  commissioners  appointed, 
however,  did  not  meet  till  August,  and,  meanwhile,  the  war 
became  more  deadly  and  mutually  destructive  than  ever. 

The  campaign  opened  in  Lower  Canada.  General  Wilkin- 
son, Avho  had  removed  his  headquarters  from  Salmon  River 
to  Plattsburg,  advanced  with  five  thousand  men  from  the  hitter 
place,  crossed  the  Canadian  frontier  at  Odelltown,  and  pushed 
on  to  Lacolle,  about  ten  miles  from  the  border.  Plere  a  large 
two-story  stone  mill,  with  eighteen-inch  walls,  barricaded  and 
loop-holed  for  musketry,  was  held  by  the  British  who  num- 
bered, in  regulars  and  militia,  about  five  hundred  men,  under 
the  command  of  Major  Ilandcock.  Shortly  after  midday,  on 
the  13th  of  jNIarch,  General  Wilkinson,  with  his  entire  force, 
surrounded  the  mill,  being  partially  covered  by  neighbouring 
woods,  with  the  design  of  taking  it  by  assault.  As  they 
advanced  with  a  cheer  to  the  attack,  they  were  met  by  such  a 
hot  and  steady  fire  that  they  were  ol)liged  to  fall  back  to  the 
shelter  of  the  woods.  The  guns  were  now  brought  up  (an 
eighteen,  a  twelve,  and  a  six  pounder),  for  the  purpose  of 
battering,  at  short  range,  a  breach  in  the  walls  of  the  mill. 
Their  fire,  however,  was  singularly  ineffective.  The  British 
sharpshooters  picked  off  the  gunners,  so  that  it  was  exceedingly 
difficult  to  get  the  range  or  to  fire  the  pieces.  In  a  cannonade 
of  two  hours  and  a  half,  only  four  shots  struck  the  mill.  Major 
Handcock,  however,  determined  to  attempt  the  capture  of  the 
guns,  and  a  detachment  of  regulars,  supported  l)y  a  company 
of  voltigeurs  and  fencibles,  was  ordered  to  charge.  In  the 
42 


330  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

face  of  desperate  odds  they  twice  advanced  to  tlie  attack  on  the 
guns,  but  were  repulsed  by  sheer  weight  of  opposing  numbers. 
The  day  wore  on.  The  ammunition  of  the  beleaguered  garri- 
son was  almost  exhausted.  Yet  no  man  spoke  of  surrender. 
For  five  hours  this  gallant  band  of  five  hundred  men  withstood 
an  army  of  tenfold  numbers.  At  length,  incapable  of  forcing 
the  British  position,  the  enemy  fell  back,  bafiled  and  defeated, 
to  Plattsburg,  and  for  a  time  the  tide  of  war  ebbed  away  from 
the  frontier  of  Lower  Canada. 

With  the  opening  of  n"avigation  hostilities  were  resumed  on 
Lake  Ontario.  During  the  winter,  two  new  vessels  had  been 
built  at  Kingston.  Strengthened  by  the  addition  of  these,  the 
British  fleet,  under  the  command  of  Sir  James  Yeo,  early  in 
May,  sailed  for  Oswego  in  order  to  destroy  a  large  quantity  of 
naval  stores  there  collected.  A  military  force  of  a  thousand 
men,  under  General  Drummond,  accompanied  the  expedition. 
An  assaulting  party  of  three  hundred  and  forty  soldiers  and 
sailors,  in  the  face  of  a  heavy  fire  of  grape,  stormed  the  strong 
and  well-defended  fort.  Li  half  an  hour  it  was  in  their  hands. 
The  fort  and  barracks  were  destroyed,  and  some  shipping,  and 
an  immense  amount  of  stores  were  taken. 

Sir  James  Yeo  now  blockaded  Chauncey's  fleet  in  Sackett's 
Harbour.  On  the  morning  of  the  last  day  of  May  a  flotilla  of 
sixteen  barges,  laden  with  naval  stores,  was  discovered  seeking 
refuge  amid  the  windings  of  Sandy  Creek.  A  boat-party  from 
the  fleet,  attempting  pursuit,  became  entangled  in  the  narrow 
creek,  and  was  attacked  by  a  strong  force  of  the  enemy, 
including  two  hundred  Indians.  After  a  desperate  resistance, 
in  which  eighteen  were  killed  and  fifty  wounded,  the  British 
force  was  overpowered,  and  a  hundred  and  forty  made  pris- 
oners. These  were  with  difficulty  saved  from  massacre  by 
the  enraged  Iroquois,  by  the  vigorous  interposition  of  their 
generous  captors. 

The  course  of  political  events  in  Europe  intimately  affected 
the  conflict  in  America.  Napoleon  was  now  a  prisoner  iii  Elba, 
and  England  was  enabled  to  throw  greater  vigour  into  her 
transatlantic  war.     In  the  month  of  June,  several  regiments  of 


THE  CAMPAIGN  OF  1814.  831 

the  veteran  troops  of  AVellington  landed  at  Quebec,  and  strong 
re-enforccmcnts  Tvere  rapidly  despatched  westward. 

The  most  sanguinary  events  of  the  campaign  occurred  on  the 
Niagara  frontier.  On  the  3d  of  Jul}'',  Brigadier-Generals  Scott 
and  Eipley,  with  a  force  of  four  thousand  men,  crossed  the 
Niagara  River  at  Buffalo.  Fort  Erie  was  garrisoned  by  only 
a  hundred  and  seventy  men,  and  the  commandant,  considering 
that  it  would  be  a  needless  effusion  of  blood  to  oppose  an  army 
with  his  scanty  forces,  surrendered  at  discretion.  The  next  day. 
General  Brown,  the  American  Commander-in-Chief,  advanced 
down  the  river  to  Chippewa.  Here  he  was  met  by  Major- 
General  Eiall,  whose  scanty  force  was  strengthened  by  the 
opportune  arrival  of  six  hundred  of  the  3d  Buffs  from  Toronto, 
making  his  entire  strength  fifteen  hundred  regulars,  six  hundred 
militia,  and  three  hundred  Indians.  The  enjjaffement  that 
ensued  was  one  of  extreme  severity,  a  greater  number  of  com- 
batants being  brought  under  fire  than  in  any  previous  action  of 
the  war.  Instead  of  prudently  remaining  on  the  defensive, 
Eiall,  about  four  o'clock  on  the  afternoon  of  the  fifth,  boldly 
attacked  the  enemy,  who  had  taken  up  a  good  position,  partly 
covered  by  some  buildings  and  orchards,  and  were  well  sup- 
ported by  artillery.  The  battle  was  fierce  and  bloody,  but  the 
Americans  were  well-ofBcered,  and  their  steadiness  in  action 
gave  evidence  of  improved  drill.  After  an  obstinate  engage- 
ment and  the  exhibition  of  unavailing  valour,  the  British  were 
forced  to  retreat,  with  the  heavy  loss  of  a  hundred  and  fifty 
killed  and  three  hundred  and  twenty  wounded,  among  whom 
was  Lieutenant-Colonel  the  Marquis  of  Tweedall.  The  loss  of 
the  Americans  was  seventy  killed  and  two  hundred  and  fifty 
wounded.  Eiall  retired  in  good  order,  without  losing  a  man  or 
gun,  though  pursued  by  the  cavalry  of  the  enemy.  Having 
thrown  re-enforcements  into  the  forts  at  Niagara,  on  both  sides 
of  the  river,  fearing  lest  his  communication  with  the  west  should 
be  cut  off  by  the  Americans,  Eiall  retreated  to  Twenty  Mile 
Creek.  General  Brown  advanced  to  Queenston  Heights,  rav- 
aged the  country,  burned  the  village  of  St.  David's,  and  made 
a  reconnoissance  toward  Niagara.      Being  disappointed  in  the 


332  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

promised  co-operation  of  Chauncey's  fleet  in  an  attack  on  the 
forts  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  he  returned  to  Chippewa,  fol- 
lowed again  by  Riall  as  far  as  Lundy's  Lane. 

In  the  meanwhile,  General  Drummond,  hearing  at  Kingston 
of  the  invasion,  hastened  with  what  troojos  he  could  collect  to 
strengthen  the  British  force  on  the  frontier.  Reaching  Niagara 
on  the  25th  of  July,  he  advanced  with  eight  hundred  men  to 
support  Eiall.  At  the  same  time,  he  pushed  forward  a  column 
from  Fort  Niagara  to  Lewiston,  to  disperse  a  body  of  the  enemy 
collected  at  that  place.  General  Brown  now  advanced  in  force 
from  Chipijcwa  against  the  British  position  at  Lundy's  Lane. 
Eiall  was  compelled  to  fall  back  before  the  immensely  superior 
American  force,  and  the  head  of  his  column  was  already  on 
the  way  to  Queenston.  General  Drummond  coming  up  with 
his  re-enforcements  about  five  o'clock,  countermanded  the  move- 
ment of  retreat,  and  immediately  formed  the  order  of  battle. 
He  occupied  the  gently  swelling,  acclivity  of  Lundy's  Lane, 
placing  his  guns  in  the  centre,  on  its  crest.  His  entire  force 
was  sixteen  hundred  men,  that  of  the  enemy  was  five  thousand. 
The  attack  began  at  six  o'clock  in  the  evening,  Drummond's 
troops  having  that  hot  July  day  marched  from  Niagara.  The 
American  infantry  made  desperate  efibrts  in  successive  charges 
to  capture  the  British  battery ;  but  the  gunners  stuck  to  their 
pieces,  and  swept,  with  a  deadly  fire,  the  advancing  lines  of  the 
enemy,  till  some  of  them  were  bayoneted  at  their  post.  The 
carnage  on  both  sides  was  terrible. 

At  length  the  long  summer  twilight  closed,  and  the  pit}ing 
night  drew  her  veil  over  the  horrors  of  the  scene.  Still,  amid 
the  darkness,  the  stubborn  contest  raged.  The  American  and 
British  guns  were  almost  muzzle  to  muzzle.  Some  of  each 
were  captured  and  re-captured  in  fierce  hand-to-hand  fights,  the 
gunners  being  bayoneted  while  serving  their  pieces.  About 
nine  o'clock,  a  lull  occurred.  The  moon  rose  upon  the  tragic 
scene,  lighting  up  the  ghastly  staring  faces  of  the  dead  and 
the  writhing  forms  of  the  dying ;  the  groans  of  the  wounded 
mingling  awfully  with  the  deep  eternal  roar  of  the  neighbouring 
cataract. 


THE   CAMPAIGN   OF  1814.  333 

The  retreating  van  of  Riall's  army  now  returned,  Tvitlia  body 
of  militia,  twelve  hundred  in  all.  The  Americans  also  brought 
up  fresh  reserves,  and  the  combat  was  renewed  with  increased 
fury.  Thin  lines  of  fire  marked  the  position  of  the  infantry, 
while  from  the  hot  lips  of  the  cannon  flashed  red  volleys  of 
flame,  revealing  in  brief  gleams  the  disordered  ranks  struggling 
in  the  gloom.  By  midnight,  after  six  hours  of  mortal  conflict, 
seventeen  hundred  men  lay  dead  or  wounded  on  the  field,  when 
the  Americans  abandoned  the  hopeless  contest,  their  loss  being 
nine  hundred  and  thirty,  besides  three  hundred  taken  prisoners. 
The  British  loss  was  seven  hundred  and  seventy.  To-day  the 
peaceful  wheat-fields  wave  upon  the  sunny  sloj^es  fertilized  by 
the  bodies  of  so  many  brave  men,  and  the  ploughshare  upturns 
rusted  bullets,  regimental  buttons,  and  other  relics  of  this  most 
sanguinary  battle  of  the  war. 

Throwing  their  heavy  baggage  and  tents  into  the  rushing 
rapids  of  the  Niagara,  and  breaking  down  the  bridges  behind 
them,  the  fugitives  retreated,  to  Fort  Erie,  where  they  formed 
an  entrenched  camp.  The  victorious  British  columns  closely 
followed,  and  for  three  weeks  the  camp  and  fort  occupied  by 
the  American  army  were  closely  besieged  by  a  force  only  two- 
thirds  as  numerous.  Two  American  armed  vessels,  which  sup- 
ported the  fort  on  the  lake  side,  were  very  cleverly  captured  in 
a  night  attack  by  Captain  Dobbs,  of  the  Royal  Navy,  by  means 
of  boats  conveyed  by  sheer  force  of  human  muscles  twenty  miles 
across  the  country  in  the  rear  of  the  American  lines,  from 
the  Niagara  to  Lake  Erie. 

On  the  13th  of  August,  after  a  vigorous  bombardment,  a 
night  attack,  in  three  columns,  was  made  upon  the  fort.  Two 
of  the  columns  had  already  efi*ected  an  entrance  into  the  works, 
and  had  turned  the  guns  upon  the  besieged  garrison,  when  the 
explosion  of  a  magazine  blew  into  the  air  a  storming  party,  and 
caused  an  unconquerable  panic  on  the  part  of  the  assailants. 
The  British  were  compelled  to  retire,  having  incurred  a  loss  of 
one  hundred  and  fifty-seven  killed,  three  hundred  wounded,  and 
one  hundred  and  eighty-six  prisoners.  The  loss  of  the  besieged 
was  eighty-four. 


334 


HISTORY  OF  CAXADA. 


The  Americans,  strongly  re-enforced,  a  month  later  made  a 
vigorous  sally  from  the  fort,  but  were  driven  back  with  a  loss 
on  the  part  of  both  assailants  and  assailed  of  about  four  hun- 
dred men.  Shortly  after,  General  Izzard  blew  up  the  works 
and  re-crossed  the  river  to  United  States  territory. 

In  the  "West,  Michilimackinac  was  re-enforced,  and  Prairie  du 
Chien,  a  fort  on  the  Mississippi,  was  captured  by  a  body  of  six 
hundred  and  fifty  Canadians  and  Indians,  without  the  loss  of  a 
single  man.  An  American  attempt  to  recapture  Michilimacki- 
nac, by  a  force  of  a  thousand  men,  was  a  total  failure,  the  only 
exploit  of  the  expedition  being  the  inglorious  pillage  and  de- 
struction of  the  undefended  trading-port  of  Ste,  Marie. 

Meanwhile,  Sir  John  Sherbrooke,  the  Governor  of  Nova 
Scotia,  despatched  several  hostile  expeditions  from  Halifax 
against  the  coast  of  Maine.  Eastport,  Castine,  Bangor, 
Machias,  and  the  whole  region  from  the  Penobscot  to  the  St. 
Croix,  surrendered  to  the  British,  and  were  held  by  them  to 
the  close  of  the  war. 

The  arrival,  in  August,  of  sixteen  thousand  of  Wellington's 
peninsular  troops,  the  heroes  of  so  many  Spanish  victories, 
placed  at  the  command  of  Sir  George  Prevost  the  means  of 
vigorously  undertaking  offensive  operations.  A  well-appointed 
force  of  eleven  thousand  men  advanced  from  Canada  to  Lake 
Champlain.  Captain  Downie,  with  a  fleet  on  which  the  ship- 
carpenters  were  still  at  work  as  he  went  into  action,  was  to 
co-operate  with  the  army  in  an  attack  on  Plattsburg,  which 
was  defended  by  five  well-armed  vessels  and  by  fifteen  hundred 
regulars  and  as  many  militia,  under  General  Macomb.  The 
British  fleet  gallantly  attacked  the  enemy,  but  after  a  des- 
perate battle,  in  which  Captain  Downie  was  slain,  and  nine  of 
the  ill-manned  gunboats  fled,  it  was  compelled  to  surrender  to 
a  superior  force.  Prevost,  notwithstanding  that  his  strength 
was  ten  times  greater  than  that  of  the  enemy,  had  awaited  the 
assistance  of  the  fleet.  As  he  tardily  advanced  his  storming 
columns,  the  cheers  from  the  fort  announced  its  capture. 
Although  on  the  verge  of  an  easy  victory,  Prevost,  fearing  the 
fate  of  Burgoyne,  and  humanely  averse  to  the   shedding  of 


TEE   CAMPAIGN   OF  1814.  335 

blood,  to  the  intense  chagrin  of  his  soldiers  gave  the  signal  to 
retreat.  IMany  of  iis  officers  for  very  shame  broke  their 
swords,  and  vowed  that  they  would  never  serve  again.  "While 
an  able  civil  governor,  Prevost  was  an  incompetent  military 
commander.  He  was  summoned  home  by  the  Horse  Guards  to 
stand  a  court-martial,  but  he  died  the  following  year,  before  the 
court  sat. 

The  launch  at  Kingston  of  the  *' St.  Lawrence,"  an  "oak 
leviathan"  of  a  hundred  guns,  gave  the  British  complete  naval* 
supremacy   of   Lake  Ontario,  and   enabled  them  strongly  to 
re-enforce  General  Drummond  with  troops  and  stores. 

Along  the  Atlantic  seaboard  the  British  maintained  a  harass- 
ing blockade.  The  close  of  the  Continental  war  enal^led  Great 
Britain  to  throw  more  vigour  into  the  conflict  w^ith  the  United 
States.  Her  giant  navy  was,  therefore,  free  from  service  in 
European  waters,  and  Admiral  Cockburn,  with  a  fleet  of  fifty 
vessels,  about  the  middle  of  August,  arrived  in  Chesapeake 
Bay  with  troops  destined  for  the  attack  on  the  American  capi- 
tal. Tangier  Island  was  seized  and  fortified,  and  fifteen  hun- 
dred negroes  of  the  neighbouring  plantations  were  armed  and 
drilled  for  military  service.  They  proved  useful,  but  very 
costly  allies,  as,  at  the  conclusion  of  the  war,  the  Emperor  of 
Russia,  w^ho  was  the  referee  in  the  matter,  awarded  their 
owners  an  indemnity  of  a  million  and  a  quarter  of  dollars,  or 
over  eight  hundred  dollars  each  for  raw  recruits  for  a  six  weeks' 
campaign. 

There  are  two  rivers  by  which  Washington  may  be 
approached  —  the  Potomac,  on  which  it  is  situated,  and  the 
Patuxent,  which  flows  in  its  rear.  The  British  commander 
chose  the  latter,  both  on  account  of  the  facility  of  access,  and 
for  the  purpose  of  destroynig  the  powerful  fleet  of  gunboats 
which  had  taken  refuge  in  its  creeks.  This  object  was  success- 
fully accomplished  on  the  20th  of  August  —  fifteen  of  the  gun- 
boats being  destroyed  and  one  captured,  together  with  fourteen 
merchant  vessels.  The  army,  under  the  command  of  General 
Ross,  on  the  following  day,  disembarked  at  Benedict.  It  num- 
bered, including  some  marines,  three  thousand  five  hundred 


336  HISTORY  OF  CAyADA. 

men,  with  two  hundred  sailors  to  drag  the  guns  —  two  small 
three-pounders. 

For  the  defence  of  "Washington,  General  Winder  had  been 
assigned  a  force  of  sixteen  thousand  six  hundred  regulars,  and 
a  levy  of  ninety-three  thousand  militia  had  been  ordered.  Of 
the  latter,  not  one  appeared  ;  of  the  former,  only  about  one-half 
mustered.  The  Americans  had,  however,  twenty-six  gims 
against  two  small  pieces  possessed  by  the  British.  General 
•  Winder  took  post  at  Bladensburg,  a  few  miles  from  Washington. 
His  batteries  commanded  the  only  bridge  across  the  East 
Potomac.  Eoss  deteimined  to  storm  the  bridge  in  two  columns. 
Not  for  a  moment  did  the  war-bronzed  veterans  of  the  Penin- 
sular War  hesitate.  Amid  a  storm  of  shot  and  shell,  they 
dashed  across  the  bridge,  carried  a  fortified  house,  and  charged 
on  the  batteries  before  the  second  column  could  come  to  their 
did.  Ten  guns  were  captured.  The  American  army  was 
utterly  routed,  and  fled  through  and  beyond  the  city  it  was  to 
defend.  The  lack  of  cavalry  and  the  intense  heat  of  the  day 
prevented  pursuit  by  the  British.  The  brilliant  action  was  sad- 
dened to  the  victors  by  the  loss  of  sixty-one  gallant  men  slain 
and  one  hundred  and  eighty-five  wounded. 

Towards  evening  the  victorious  army  occupied  the  city.  The 
destruction  of  the  public  buildings  had  been  decreed,  in 
retaliation  for  the  pillage  of  Toronto  and  the  wanton  burning  of 
Niagara.  An  offer  was  -made  to  the  American  authorities  to 
accept  a  money  payment  by  way  of  ransom,  but  it  was  refused. 
The  next  day,  the  torch  was  ruthlessly  applied  to  the  Capitol, 
with  its  valual)le  library,  the  President's  House,  Treasury, 
War  Office,  arsenal,  dockyard,  and  the  Long  Bridge  across 
the  Potomac.  The  enemy  had  already  destroyed  a  fine  frigate, 
a  twenty-gun  sloop,  twenty  thousand  stand  of  arms,  and 
immense  magazines  of  powder.  Even  if  justifiable  as  a  military 
retaliation,  this  act  was  unworthy  of  a  great  and  generous 
nation.  The  town  of  Alexandria  was  saved  from  destruction 
only  by  the  surrender  of  twenty-one  vessels,  sixteen  hundred 
barrels  of  flour,  and  a  thousand  hogsheads  of  tobacco. 

The  city  of  Baltimore  redeemed  itself  more  bravely.    Against 


TnE   CAMPAIGN  OF  1814. 


337 


that  place  General  Ross  now  proceeded  with  his  army  and  the 
fleet.  A  strong  force  of  regulars  and  militia  guarded  the  city. 
In  attacking  the  enemy's  outposts,  General  Koss  was  slain,  and 
the  command  devolved  on  Colonel  Brooke.  Six  thousand 
infantry,  four  hundred  horse,  and  four  guns,  protected  by  a 
wooden  palisade,  disputed  the  passage  of  the  British.  With  a 
shout  and  a  cheer,  Wellington's  veterans  attacked  the  obstruc- 
tions, and,  in  fifteen  minutes,  were  masters  of  the  field.  The 
American  array  fled,  leaving  behind  them  six  hundred  killed  or 
wounded,  and  three  hundred  prisoners,  September  13.  The 
next  morning,  the  British  were  within  a  mile  and  a  half  of 
Baltimore,  but  they  found  fifteen  thousand  men,  with  a  large 
train  of  artillery,  in  possession  of  the  heights  commanding  the 
city.  Colonel  Brooke,  not  willing  to  incur  the  risk  of  attack- 
ing in  daylight,  with  three  thousand  men,  a  fivefold  number, 
resolved  on  attempting  a  surprise  by  night.  He  learned,  how- 
ever, that  the  enemy,  by  sinking  twenty  vessels  in  the  river, 
had  prevented  all  naval  co-operation.  The  inevitable  loss  of  life 
in  an  assault  far  counter-balancing  any  prospective  advantage, 
Brooke  wisely  abandoned  the  design,  and  withdrew  unmolested 
to  his  ships. 

The  fleet  and  army  which  had  l)een  baffled  at  Baltimore  sailed 
for  New  Orleans,  with  the  object  of  capturing  the  chief  cotton 
port  of  the  United  States,  then  a  city  of  seventeen  thousand 
inhabitants.  The  fleet  arrived  off  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi 
on  the  8th  of  December. 


It  was  opposed  by  a  flotilla 
of  gunboats,  but  they  were 
all  soon  captured  and  de- 
stroyed. Amid  very  great 
difficulties  and  hardships, 
resulting  from  the  severity 
of  the  weather  and  the 
wretched  condition  of  the 
roads,  the  army  under 
General  Packenham  advanced  to  within  six  miles  of  New 
Orleans.     Here  General  Jackson,  the  American  commander, 

43 


BATTLE  OF  NEW  ORLEANS. 


338  HISTORY  OF  C.iNADA. 

had  constructed  a  deep  ditch  and  an  entrenchment  of  earthworks, 
strengthened  by  sand-bags  and  cotton-bales,  a  thousand  yards 
long,  stretching  from  the  IVIississippi  to  an  impassable  swamp  in 
the  rear.  Flanking  batteries  enfiladed  the  front.  Behind  these 
formidable  works  was  posted  an  army  of  twelve  thousand 
men. 

Packenham  resolved  to  send  Colonel  Thornton,  with  fourteen 
hundred  men,  across  the  river  by  night,  to  storm  a  battery  which 
swept  the  front  of  the  earthworks,  and  to  menace  the  city  of 
New  Orleans.  At  the  same  time,  the  main  attack  was  to  be 
made  on  Jackson's  lines,  in  two  columns,  imder  Generals  Gibbs 
and  Keane.  Packenham  had  only  six  thousand  men,  including 
seamen  and  marines,  "  to  attack  twice  the  number,  entrenched 
to  the  teeth  in  works  bristling  with  bayonets  and  loaded  with 
heavy  artillery."*  The  rapid  fall  of  the  river  retarded  the 
crossing  of  the  troops,  and  prevented  a  simultaneous  attack  on 
the  right  and  left  banks. 

Impatient  at  the  delay,  Packenham  ordered  the  assault  on 
Jan.  6,  Jackson's  lines  ;  the  columns  moved  steadily  forward, 
1815.  ]3^^  ^i^Q  dawn  of  day  revealed  their  approach,  and  they 
were  met  by  a  concentrated  and  murderous  fire  from  the 
batteries.  Without  flinching,  they  advanced  to  the  ditch,  when 
it  was  found  that  the  fascines  and  scaling-ladders  had  been  for- 
gotten. The  head  of  the  column,  thus  brought  to  a  halt  under 
the  enemy's  guns,  was  crushed  back  by  the  tremendous  fire. 
Packenham  now  fell  mortally  wounded,  and  Generals  Gibbs  and 
Keane  were  shortly  after  struck  down. 

The  gallant  Ninety-third  Plighlandcrs,  however,  undaunted  by 
the  carnage,  rushed  forward,  and  many  of  them  fairly  climbed 
their  way  into  the  works,  mounting  on  each  other's  shoulders. 
But  their  rash  valour  brought  upon  them  a  concentrated  fire  of 
grape,  by  which  the  successful  assailants  were  cut  down  to  a 
man.  General  Lambert,  on  whom  the  command  now  devolved, 
finding  it  impossible  to  carry  the  works,  and  the  slaughter  being 
tremendous,  drew  oflf  his  troops.     In  this  sanguinary  repulse, 

*  Alison's  History  of  Europe,  Cliap.  LXXVI.,  American  ed.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  480. 


THE  CAMPAIGN   OF  1814.  339 

the  British  lost  two  thousand  men  killed,  wounded  and  prison- 
ers. The  Americans  claim  that  their  loss  was  only  eight  killed 
and  thirteen  womided. 

Meanwhile,  Colonel  Thornton,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river, 
had  achieved  a  brilliant  success.  With  only  one-third  of  his 
command,  or  less  than  five  hundred  men,  he  had  stormed  a 
redoubt  of  twenty  guns,  defended  by  seventeen  hundred  men. 
The  defeat  of  the  main  body,  however,  rendered  the  position 
untenable.  Lambert  successfully  retreated  to  his  ships,  bring- 
ing off  all  his  stores,  ammunition,  and  field  artillery.  On  the 
27th,  the  army  re-embarked,  and  found  a  partial  consolation 
for  its  defeat  in  the  capture  of  Fort  Boyer,  a  strong  fortification 
at  the  mouth  of  the  river. 

Peace  had  already  been  concluded  at  Ghent  on  the  24th  of 
December,  and  was  hailed  with  delight  by  the  kindred  peoples, 
wearied  "with  mutual  and  unavailing  slaughter.  The  calm 
verdict  of  history  finds  much  ground  of  extenuation  for  the 
revolt  of  1776  ;  but  for  the  American  declaration  of  war  in 
1812,  little  or  none.  A  reckless  Democratic  majority  wantonly 
invaded  the  country  of  an  unoffending  neighbouring  people,  to 
seduce  them  from  their  lawful  allegiance  and  annex  their 
territory.  The  long  and  costly  conflict  was  alike  bloody  and 
barren.  The  Americans  annexed  not  a  single  foot  of  territory. 
They  gained  not  a  single  permanent  advantage.  Their  seaboard 
was  insulted,  their  capitol  destroyed.  Their  annual  exports 
were  reduced  from  £22,000,000  to  £1,500,000.  Three  thou- 
sand of  their  vessels  were  captured.  Two-thirds  of  their  com- 
mercial class  became  insolvent.  A  vast  war-tax  was  incurred, 
and  the  very  existence  of  the  Union  imperilled  by  the  menaced 
secession  of  the  New  England  States.  The  *'  right  of  search  " 
and  the  rights  of  neutrals  —  the  ostensible  but  not  the  real 
causes  of  the  war  —  were  not  even  mentioned  in  the  treaty  of 
peace.  The  adjustment  of  unsettled  boundaries  was  refen-ed 
to  a  commission,  and  an  agreement  was  made  for  a  combined 
effort  for  the  suppression  of  the  slave-trade.  The  United 
States,    however,   continued    its    internal    slave -traffic,   of  a 


340  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

character  even  more  obnoxious  than  that  which  it  engaged  to 
suppress. 

On  Canada,  too,  the  burden  of  the  war  fell  heavily.  Great 
Britain,  exhausted  by  nearly  twenty  years  of  conflict,  and  stijl 
engaged  in  a  strenuous  struggle  against  the  European  despot. 
Napoleon,  could  only,  till  near  the  close  of  the  war,  furnish 
scanty  mihtary  aid.  It  was  Canadian  militia,  with  little  help 
from  British  regulars,  who  won  the  brilliant  victories  of 
Chrysler's  Farm  and  Chateauguay ;  and  throughout  the  entire 
conflict  they  were  the  principal  defence  of  their  country.  In 
many  a  Canadian  home,  bitter  tears  were  shed  for  son  or  sire 
left  cold  and  stark  upon  the  bloody  j)lain  at  Queenston  Heights, 
or  Chippewa,  or  Lundy's  Lane,  or  other  hard-fought  field  of 
battle. 

The  lavish  expenditure  of  the  Imperial  authorities,  for  ship- 
building, transport  service,  and  army  supplies,  and  the  free 
circulation  of  the  paper  money  issued  by  the  Canadian  Govern- 
ment,* greatly  stimulated  the  prosperity  of  the  country.  Its 
peaceful  industries,  agriculture,  and  the  legitimate  development 
of  its  natural  resources,  however,  were  very  much  interrupted, 
and  vast  amounts  of  public  and  private  property  were  relent- 
lessly confiscated  or  destroyed  by  the  enemy. 

*  The  paper  currency  of  the  United  States  was  not  redeemed  till  it  had 
greatly  depreciated  in  value,  to  the  often  ruinous  loss  of  the  holders. 


AFTER  THE   WAR— LOWER  CANADA,  341 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

AFTER  THE  WAR  —  LOWER  CANADA. 

The  Close  of  the  War  —  State  of  the  Country  —  Progress  in  Manufactures  — 
Immigration,  1816  —  Internal  Development  —  Sir  John  Cope  Shcrbrooke, 
Governor-General,  1818  —  Political  Strife  Renewed  —  The  Duke  of  Richmond, 
Governor-General  —  The  Assembly  Refuses  a  Supply  Bill  —  Tragical  Death 
of  the  Governor-General,  1819  —  Death  of  George  III.,  and  Accession  of 
George  IV.,  1820  —  Papineau's  Speech  —  The  Earl  of  Dalhousie,  Governor- 
General  —  Conflict  between  Council  and  Assembly  —  Union  of  the  Provinces 
Proposed,  1822  —  Favoured  by  the  English,  Opposed  by  the  French  — 
Default  of  the  Receiver-General,  1824  —  He  is  Sustained  by  the  Council  — 
Imperial  Commission  on  Canadian  Affairs,  1828  —  Its  Report. 

AT  the  conclusion  of  the  war,  the  fictitious  prosperity 
created  by  the  military  expenditure  rapidly  declined, 
and  its  financial  burdens,  in  the  form  of  militia  pensions*  and 
gratuities  to  the  widows  and  orphans  of  the  slain,  were  severely 
felt.  Grants  of  money  were  made  by  the  legislature  of  Lower 
Canada  for  the  construction  of  the  Lachine  and  Rideau  canals, 
and  the  accurate  survey  of  the  country  was  projected. 
Domestic  manufactures,  such  as  those  of  leather,  hats,  paper, 
and  to  some  extent,  of  iron,  had  been  introduced ;  and  saw- 
mills and  grist-mills  multiplied  on  the  inland  streams.  From 
the  ashes  of  the  forests,  burned  in  the  clearing  of  the  land,  a 
considerable  quantity  of  potash  and  pearlash  was  produced. 
Colonization  roads  were  greatly  extended  and  improved.  Ship- 
building was  actively  prosecuted,  especially  at  Quebec.  The 
Banks  of  Montreal,  Quebec,  and  Kingston  were  established,  and 
greatly  facilitated  the  trade  of  the  province.  Immigration,  in 
consequence  of  the  depression  of  trade  in  the  mother  country, 
largely  increased,  and  the  new  settlers  were  liberally  aided  by 
the  Government  with  rations  and  implements.     Steam  naviga- 

*  Each  militia-man  disabled  through  wounds  received  during  the  war,  was 
awarded  a  pension  of  £6  per  annum  —  a  meagre  allowance,  but  all  that  the 
exhausted  resources  of  the  country  could  afford. 


342  BISTORT  OF  CAXADA. 

tion  was  extended  on  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  lakes. 
Additional  steamboats  were  constructed  at  Montreal  by  the 
Hon.  JohnMolson,  "  the  father  of  Canadian  steam  navigation," 
and  the  "  Molson,"  "  Swiftsure,"  and  "Accommodation" 
formed  an  efficient  line  for  river  travel.  The  transatlantic  trade 
of  Quebec  also  sjirang  into  importance. 

Still  the  population  was  sparse  —  averaging  in  Upper  Canada 
only  seven  per  square  mile.  Schools,  teachers,  and  medical 
men  were  few,  and  not  always  the  most  efficient.  Lower 
Canada  was  divided  into  parishes,  each  with  its  resident  cure; 
but  in  the  upper  j^rovince  the  people  were  dependent  for 
religious  instruction  largely  on  the  zeal  of  itinerant  mission- 
aries, chiefly  of  the  Methodist  persuasion. 

Sir  Gordon  Drummond,  the  hero  of  Lundy's  Lane,  on  the 
recall  of  Sir  George  Prevost,  was  appointed  administrator  of 
the  government.  He  was  born  in  Quebec,  but  had  seen 
much  service  abroad,  and  had  won  distinction  in  Egypt  before 
he  gained  his  brightest  laurels  in  the  Canadian  campaigns  of 
1813-1814.  He  served  the  country  with  unremitting  zeal  and 
integrity  of  purpose  till  the  spring  of  1816.  At  his  own 
1816.  request,  he  was  relieved  of  the  onerous  duties  of 
government,  and  Sir  John  Cope  Sherbrooke,  Governor  of  Nova 
Scotia,  an  old  officer  of  Wellington's  Indian  and  Peninsular 
campaigns,  was  appointed  as  his  successor.  The  new  Governor 
assumed  the  duties  of  office  at  a  most  critical  period  in  the 
history  of  the  country.  Not  only  was  there  a  good  deal  of 
political  discontent,  but  the  farmers  of  Lower  Canada  had 
suffered  the  almost  total  loss  of  their  wheat  crop.  General 
Sherbrooke,  without  waiting  for  the  meeting  of  Parliament, 
assumed  the  responsibility  of  advancing,  for  the  relief  of  the 
farmers,  the  sum  of  £14,246,  to  save  them  from  destitution  and 
to  furnish  the  means  of  putting  in  a  new  crop.  On  its 
assembly,  parliament  not  only  indemnified  him  for  the  act,  but 
voted  an  additional  sum  of  £35,500  to  relieve  the  prevailing 
distress. 

The  conflict  between  the  Legislative  Assemljly  and  the 
Council,   which  had    been   suspended    during    the   war,   now 


AFTER   THE    ]VAR  — LOWER   CANADA.  343 

revived.  The  impeachment  of  Chief  Justices  Sewell  and  Monk 
was  dismissed  hy  the  Prince-Regent,  and  was  finally  abandoned 
by  the  Asscmbl}^,  out-wearied  and  out-manoeuvred  by  official 
influence,  which  largely  controlled  the  action  of  both  Assembly 
and  Council.  The  slight  restraint  on  the  Executive  which  the 
Lower  House  possessed,  was  largely  neutralized  by  the 
independent  sources  of  revenue  from  duties  levied  by  the 
Imperial  authorities,  which  the  colonial  administration  might 
exi^cnd  without  the  consent  of  the  Assembly. 

In  1818,  Sir  John  Sherbrooke  requested  his  recall  on  the 
ground  of  ill-health.  The  Duke  of  Richmond,  a  distinguished 
noble,  who,  as  Lord  Lieutenant,  had  administered  public  affiiirs 
in  Ireland  with  eminent  success,  was  appointed  Governor- 
General.  The  breach  between  the  Council  and  the  Legislative 
Assembly  grew  wider  and  wider.  Four-fifths  of  the  latter 
were  French,  whereas  four-fifths  of  the  office-holders  appointed 
by  the  Council  were  English.  When  civil  government  was  first 
introduced  into  the  country,  after  the  conquest,  its  cost  was 
defrayed  in  part  by  duties  and  taxes  levied  by  the  Imperial 
parliament.  But  after  the  Constitutional  Act  of  1791,  the 
Assembly  strenuously  objected  to  this  mode  of  taxation,  over 
which  it  had  no  control.  It  therefore  oflTered  to  defray  the 
entire  civil  list,  in  order  that  it  might  also  control  the 
expenditure.  The  Council,  however,  regarded  this  as  an 
infringement  on  the  royal  prerogative.  Notwithstanding  this 
ground  of  irritation,  the  civil  list  for  the  year  1819  was  found 
to  amount  to  £81,432,  being  an  increase  of  £15,000  on  that  of 
the  previous  year.  The  most  objectionable  feature  of  this 
increase  was  a  permanent  charge  of  £8,000  per  annum,  for  a 
pension-list,  to  be  disposed  of  by  the  Government  at  pleasure. 
The  Assembly  therefore  asserted  its  constitutional  right  to  cut 
down  the  several  items  of  expenditure,  chiefly  salaries,  to  the 
amount,  in  all,  of  about  £20,000.  The  Council,  however, 
refused  to  pass  the  amended  supply  bill,  and  thus  a  dead-lock 
ensued.  The  conflict  between  the  Executive  and  the  Assem- 
bly was,  however,  interrupted  by  a  tragical  circumstance. 
During  the   summer,  His  Excellency  the  Governor-General, 


344 


EISTORY  OF  CANADA. 


designed  making  an  extensive  journey  through  the  two  Canadas. 
He  had  proceeded  as  flir  as  the  village  of  Richmond,  named 
after  himself,  on  the  Ottawa.  Here  he  was  bitten  by  a  tame 
fox,  which  unfortunately  proved  rabid.  He  shortly  after  died, 
amid  the  pangs  of  hydrophobia,  August  27,  1819.  The 
administration  of  public  affiiirs  devolved  upon  his  son-in-law, 
Sir  Peregrine  IMaitland,  the  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Upper 
Canada.* 

The  general  election  of  1820  resulted  unfavourably  to  the 
Government.  The  Assembly  refused  to  do  business  on  the 
ground  that  the  House  was  incomplete,  as  the  member  for 
Gasp6  had  not  been  elected.  On  the  29th  of  January,  in  the 
sixtieth  year  of  his  eventful  reign  and  in  the  eighty-second 
year  of  his  age,  infirm,  blind,  beclouded  in  intellect,  but 
beloved  by  his  subjects,  King  George  HI.  died.  In  accord- 
ance wdth  a  not  very  rational  usage,  all  the  provincial  Assem- 
blies were  dissolved.  Thus  the  collision  of  authority  between 
the  two  branches  of  the  legislature  in  Lower  Canada  was  for  a 
time  postponed,  and  amid  the  ringing  of  joy-bells  and  firing  of 
cannon,  George  IV.  was  proclaimed  king.  In  a  public  address 
of  loyal  congratulation,  M.  Papi- 
neau,  the  Speaker  of  the  Assem- 
bly, contrasted  the  happy  condition 
of  the  French  under  English  rule 
with,  their  misery  under  the  old 
regime.  After  denouncing  the  ar- 
bitrary and  oppressive  government 
of  the  French  crown  officials,  he 
proceeded  to  describe  in  glowing 
language  the  beneficent  results  of 
the  conquest.  '<From  that  day," 
he  said,  *'the  reign  of  law  suc- 
ceeded to  that  of  violence ;  from 
that  day,  the  treasures,  the   navy,   and   the    army  of   Great 


^0\^ 


HON.  LOUIS  J.  PAPLNEAU. 


*  Notwithstanding  the  political  strife,  the  population  and  prosperity  of  the 
country  continued  rapidly  to  increase.  The  number  of  immigrants  arriving  at 
Quebec  this  year,  chiefly  from  Ireland,  was  12,434. 


AFTER   THE   WAR— LOWER   CANADA.  345 

Britain,  are  mustered  to  aflford  us  an  invincible  protection 
against  external  danger ;  from  that  day,  the  better  part  of  her 
laws  became  ours,  while  our  religion,  property,  and  the  laws 
by  which  they  were  governed,  remain  unaltered ;  soon  after, 
are  granted  to  us  the  privileges  of  its  free  constitution, — an 
infallible  pledge  of  our  internal  prosperity.  Now,  religious 
toleration ;  the  protection  of  innocence ;  security  against 
arbitrary  imprisonment,  by  the  privileges  attached  to  the  writ 
of  Habeas  Corpus  ;  loyal  and  equal  security  aflbrded  to  all,  in 
their  person,  honour  and  property ;  the  right  to  obey  no  other 
laws  than  those  of  our  own  making  and  choice,  expressed 
through  our  representatives  ;  all  these  advantages  have  become 
our  birthright,  and  shall,  I  hope,  be  the  lasting  inheritance  of 
our  posterity.  To  secure  them,  let  us  only  act  as  British  sub- 
jects and  freemen."  As  we  shall  hereafter  see,  M.  Papineau 
lived  to  recant  the  just  and  generous  sentiments  here  expressed. 

The  Earl  of  Dalhousie,  a  veteran  soldier  of  distinguished 
experience,  became  the  new  Governor-General.  With  singu- 
larly high  notions  of  vice-regal  prerogative,  he  demanded  a 
vote  of  supply  for  the  period  of  the  King's  life.  The  Assem- 
bly resisted  the  demand.  The  Governor,  by  the  advice  of  the 
Council,  drew  on  the  moneys  in  the  hands  of  the  Receiver- 
General.  The  Assembly  denounced  the  act  as  unconstitutional. 
The  breach  between  the  two  branches  of  the  legislature  grew 
wider.  The  Upper  House  consisted  chiefly  of  Government 
dependents  and  English-speaking  members,  and  favoured  the 
monopoly  of  power  exercised  by  the  Executive.  The  Lower 
House  w^as  largely  French,  and  was  naturally  jealous  of  the 
dominant  party,  and  of  the  distribution  of  patronage  and 
positions  of  emolument.  The  growing  English-speaking  popu- 
lation, dissatisfied  with  the  feudal  land  tenure  and  inconvenient 
administration  of  justice  in  accordance  with  the  French  code, 
urged  the  union  of  the  two  Canadas,  and  the  suppression  of 
the  French  laws  in  the  courts,  and  the  French  tenure  of  land. 

The  financial  relations  of  Upper  and  Lower  Canada  also 
required  re-adjustment.  The  customs  duties  were  chiefly  col- 
lected at  the  great  ports  of  entry  on  the  St.  Lawrence.     By  an 

44 


346  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

arrangement  "which  expired  by  effluxion  of  time  in  1819,  one- 
fifth  of  these  duties  was  refunded  to  Upper  Canada,  as  the 
proportion  of  revenue  from  that  source.  As  its  population, 
however,  increased  much  faster  than  that  of  Lower  Canada, 
and,  consequently,  its  consumption  of  dutiable  goods,  it 
claimed  a  larger  proportion  of  the  customs  revenue,  besides  an 
arrearage  of  £30,000.  The  upjjer  province,  therefore,  invoked 
the  aid  of  the  Imperial  parliament  for  the  adjustment  of  these 
differences.  The  mutual  relations  of  the  provinces  were  the 
subject  of  prolonged  discussion,  which  resulted  in  the  passage 
of  the  Canada  Trade  Act,  providing  for  the  distribution  of 
revenue  arising  from  duties  more  equitably  to  the  increased 
population  of  the  upper  province.  Provision  was  also  made 
for  the  commutation  of  the  seigneurial  tenure  into  "free  and 
common  soccage."  The  legislative  union  of  the  two  Canadas  had 
also  been  provided  for  in  the  bill,  but  that  clause  was  reserved 
till  the  state  of  feeling  in  the  provinces  relative  thereto  should 
be  ascertained.  That  feeling  in  the  lower  province  was  soon 
very  unmistakably  expressed.  The  French,  almost  to  a  man, 
resented  the  union  scheme  as  a  denationalizing  policy,  and  a 
violation  of  their  guaranteed  rights  and  privileges.  The 
Assembly  strongly  protested  against  it,  and  anti-union  peti- 
tions, signed  by  sixty  thousand  persons,  were  sent  to  the 
Imperial  parliament.  The  general  ignorance  of  the  French 
population,  however,  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  nine-tenths  of 
the  petitioners  were  unable  to  write  their  names,  and  Avere, 
therefore,  compelled  to  sign  by  the  mark  of  a  cross.  The 
upper  province,  and  the  English  in  Lower  Canada,  were 
strongly  in  favour  of  the  union  ;  but  its  consummation  Avas  not 
to  take  place  till  after  nearly  a  score  of  stormy  years. 

A  just  grievance  intensified  the  resentment  of  the  Legisla- 
tive Assembly  of  Lower  Canada  against  the  Executive  Council. 
Sir  John  Caldwell,  Eeceiver-General  of  the  province,  was 
found  a  defaulter  to  the  amount  of  £96,000  of  public  money-s, 
and  was  yet  retained  as  a  member  of  the  Council.  That  official 
ofi*ered-  to  surrender  private  property  to  the  estimated  value 
of  one-third  of  his  indebtedness.     As,  however,  he  had  been 


AFTER   THE   WAR  — LOWER   CANADA.  347 

appointed  and  sustained  in  office  by  the  Imperial  authorities, 
the  Assembly  declined  to  accept  his  offer.  On  the  contrary,  it 
passed  an  address  to  the  crown,  praying  for  the  indemnification 
of  the  province  for  the  loss  sustained  through  a  crown  officer. 
The  Court  of  King's  Bench  subsequently  rendered  a  judgment 
for  £106,797  against  the  defaulter.  A  part  only  of  this  large 
indebtedness  was  recovered  by  the  sale  of  his  large  landed 
j)roperty  in  Canada. 

The  breach  between  the  Assembly  and  Council  became  yearly 
wider  and  wider.  The  Lower  House  re-asserted  its  right  to 
the  control  of  the  crown  revenue,  as  a  condition  of  passing  a 
supply  bill.  During  the  visit  of  the  Governor-General  to  Eng- 
land in  1825,  Lieutenant-Governor  Sir  Francis  Burton  dis- 
charged the  duties  of  his  office.*  He  conceded  the  demand  of 
the  Assembly  for  the  control  of  the  crown  revenue,  and  thus 
appeased  the  rising  dissatisfaction  of  the  popular  branch  of  the 
legislature.  On  his  return  from  England  and  resumption  of  the 
government.  Lord  Dalhousie  completely  frustrated  the  con- 
ciliatory policy  of  the  Lieutenant-Governor,  by  demanding  a 
permanent  civil  list.  This  was  refused  by  the  exasperated 
Assembly ;  when  the  Governor,  with  reproaches  for  its  con- 
tumacy, dissolved  the  House,  March  7,  1827. 

The  indignation  of  the  French-speaking  portion  of  the  com- 
munity at  what  was  considered  a  subversion  of  the  constitution 
was  intense.  Tumultuous  meetings  were  held,  and  petitions, 
signed  by  eighty-seven  thousand  persons,  invoked  the  inter- 
vention of  the  Home  Government  for  the  redress  of  their 
political  grievances.  Ten  thousand  of  the  British  population 
petitioned  for  the  union  of  the  Canadas  as  the  best  or  only 
solution  of  the  legislative  difficulty.  The  principal  French 
agitator  was  M.  Papineau,  who  had  been  Speaker  of  the  late 
Assembly.  He  had  already  thrown  away  his  professions  of 
intense  loyalty,  and  his  invectives  against  the  King's  represent- 

*  During  tliis  year,  Sir  Francis  Burton  laid,  amid  imposing  ceremonies,  the 
corner-stone  of  the  Parish  Church  of  Notre  Dame,  at  Montreal,  the  largest 
church,  -with  the  exception  of  the  Cathedral  of  the  City  of  Mexico,  on  the 
continent. 


348  BISTORT  OF  CANADA. 

ative  were  exceedingly  audacious  and  severe,  verging,  indeed, 
on  the  seditious.  When  the  new  parliament  met,  however, 
this  popular  tribune  was  elected  by  the  Assembly,  almost 
unanimously,  as  its  Speaker.  The  Governor  declined  to  recog- 
nize their  election,  and,  on  their  persistence  in  their  choice, 
prorogued  the  House. 

A  commission  was  appointed  by  the  Imperial  Parliament  to 
1828.  investigate  the  civil  condition  of  Canada.  It  reported 
in  favour  of  liberal  concessions  and  reforms.  Its  principal 
recommendations  were  the  following :  That  the  crown  duties 
should  be  placed  under  the  control  of  the  Assembly,  which 
should  make  permanent  provision  for  the  civil  expenses  of 
government ;  that  the  Executive  and  Legislative  Councils,  in 
both  provinces,  should  be  rendered  more  independent  of  crown 
influence  by  the  introduction  of  gentlemen  without  official 
position,  and  in  Lower  Canada,  without  invidious  distinctions 
as  to  British  or  French  nationality,  or  Protestant  or  Catholic 
religion ;  that  a  board  of  audit  examine  the  public  accounts ; 
that  the  electoral  representation  be  equitably  re-adjusted  ;  that 
the  land  tenure  of  British  settlers  be  conformed  to  English  law  ; 
and  that  the  crown  land  and  clergy  reserve  administration  be 
reformed  so  as  to  promote  the  settlement  of  the  country.  The 
report  of  the  commissioners  produced  the  most  lively  gratifica- 
tion in  Lower  Canada.  A  week  before  its  arrival,  Lord  Dal- 
housie  sailed  for  England,  and  was  thus  spared  the  mortification 
of  witnessing  a  policy  of  conciliation  substituted  for  one  of 
coercion.  He  was  subsequently  appointed  Commander-in-Chief 
of  the  British  forces  in  India,  and  there  won  merited  distinction 
by  his  vigorous  military  administration. 


AFTER   THE    WAR— UPPER   CANADA.  349 


CHAPTER   XXVI. 

AFTER  THE  WAR  — UPPER  CANADA. 

Francis  Gore,  Esq.,  Lieutenant-Governor,  1815  —  The  Clergy  Reserve  Grievance 
—  The  "Family  Compact"  —  Its  Status  and  Influence  —  Robert  Gourlay 
Agitates  against  Crown  Land  Administration  —  Sir  Peregrine  Maitland, 
Lieutenant-Governor,  1818  —  The  "Canada  Trade  Act"  Adjusts  Fiscal  Diffi- 
culties between  the  Provinces,  1822  —  The  Bidwell  Election  Case  —  The  Rev. 
Dr.  Strachan,  a  Member  of  the  Legislative  Council  —  Law  Reforms  —  Re-ac- 
tion against  the  Family  Compact  —  William  Lyon  Mackenzie  —  His  Printing 
Office  Wrecked — Sir  John  Colborue,  Lieutenant-Governor,  1829  —  Robert 
Baldwin  becomes  a  Reform  Leader  —  Mackenzie  Agitates  against  Political 
Grievances  -r-  Is  Persecuted  into  Popularity  —  Toronto  Incorporated,  1834  — 
Mackenzie  first  Mayor  —  Sir  Francis  Bond  Head,  Lieutenant-Governor,  1836. 

IN  Upper  Canada,  at  the  close  of  the  "war,  General  Drum- 
mond  was  succeeded  in  the  administration  of  the  govern- 
ment by  Generals  Murray  and  Robinson,  for  a  couple  of 
months  each,  till  the  return  of  its  former  civilian  Governor, 
Francis  Gore,  Esq.,  September  25,  1815.  A  free  passage  and 
liberal  grants  of  land  induced  a  large  immigration  from  Great 
Britain ;  but  settlers  from  the  United  States,  as  a  precaution 
against  undue  American  influence,  were  refused  land-grants  or 
permission  to  become  naturalized  subjects.  The  legislature 
voted  an  annual  grant  of  £2,500  for  the  civil  list,  and  a  liberal 
sum  for  the  founding  of  a  public-school  system,  the  basis  of 
that  which  we  to-day  possess.  A  good  deal  of  dissatisfaction 
was  felt  at  the  delay  in  giving  the  promised  grants  of  lands  to 
the  volunteers  and  militia,  and  at  the  exclusive  claim  of  the 
Church  of  England  to  one-seventh  of  all  the  public  lands  of 
the  province,  set  apart  for  the  "support  of  a  Protestant 
clergy."  It  was  felt  that  these  "reserves"  constituted  too 
large  a  proportion  of  the  territory  of  the  country ;  that  their 
reservation  retarded  its  settlement ;  and  that  their  appropria- 
tion for  the  exclusive  advantage  of  any  one  denomination  was 
a  practical  injustice  to  all  others,  and  introduced  into  the  mixed 


350  HISTORY   OF  CANADA. 

population  of  Canada  the  social  and  religious  inequalities  and 
jealousies  inseparable  from  the  existence  of  an  endowed  and 
established  state  Church. 

We  have  seen  how,  before  the  war,  the  principal  offices  of 
trust,  honour,  and  emolument,  were  largely  engrossed  by  an 
aristocratic  party,  —  a  natural  consequence  of  the  superior 
social  position  of  its  members,  and  their  greater  educational 
fitness  for  the  discharge  of  official  duties.  This  party,  which 
from  the  intimate  social  relations  of  its  leading  spirits  became 
known  as  the  *♦  Family  Compact,"  was  greatly  strengthened 
during  and  after  the  war,  and  almost  entirely  controlled  the 
executive  administration  of  the  province.  It  furnished  the 
members  of  the  Legislative  and  Executive  Councils,  and  filled 
the  offices  which  managed  the  finances  and  public  lands.  Its 
adherents  formed  the  majority  of  the  Legislative  Assembly, 
and  were  often  placemen  whose  votes  maintained  the  monop- 
oly of  power  in  the  hands  of  their  patrons.  Any  adverse 
criticism  of  the  acts  of  the  Government,  or  discussion  of  public 
grievances  in  the  press  or  in  public  assemblies,  was  resented  as 
a  seditious  interference  with  the  lawful  authorities,  and  was  pun- 
ished by  libel  suits,  imprisonment,  social  ostracism,  and  loss  of 
any  public  office  that  the  ofiender  might  hold.  This  "  Com- 
pact "  was  extremely  unpopular  with  a  large  proportion  of  the 
population,  especially  with  many 
of  the  British  and  American  im- 
migrants, and  a  prolonged  struggle 
resulted  in  the  overthrow  of  its 
authority,  and  the  establishment 
of  the  principles  of  responsible 
government. 

One   of    the    leading  members 
of   this    ' '  Compact "    was    John 
Beverly  Robinson,  afterward  Chief 
Justice  of  Upper  Canada.     Even 
SIR  JOHN  BEVERLY  ROBINSON,      thosc  who  differed  from  this  gen- 
tleman politically,  admired  his  eminent  abilities  and  esteemed 
his  incorruptible  integrity.      He    came   of   U.    E.    Loyalist 


AFTER   THE    WAR—UPFER   CAXADA.  351 

stock,  bis  father  haviug  served  his  King  in  the  Eevolutionary 
war.  He  was  born  in  Berthier,  in  Lower  Canada,  in  1791, 
and  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  pupils  of  the  Rev. 
Dr.  Stracban.  He  became  acting  Attorney-General  of  Upper 
Canada  at  the  early  age  of  twenty-one ;  and,  soon  after, 
Solicitor-General  of  the  province.  He  became  Chief  Justice 
in  1829  ;  but,  after  the  manner  of  those  days,  continued  a 
member  of  the  Legislative  Council  till  that  body  was  re- 
modelled under  the  Union  Act  of  1840.  He  was  a  strenuous 
upholder  of  the  prerogatives  of  the  crown  against  the  en- 
croachments, as  they  were  deemed,  of  popular  liberty.  He 
incurred  a  good  deal  of  political  odium  on  account  of  his 
prosecution,  as  Attorney- General,  of  the  press  for  alleged 
libels ;  but  his  personal  integrity  and  patriotic  intentions 
were  never  impugned.  He  commanded  the  confidence  of 
three  successive  Governors,  and  received  the  approbation  of 
his  sovereign  and  the  honour  of  a  baronetcy.  He  long  survived 
the  political  strifes  of  his  early  years,  and,  in  his  high  place, 
lent  lustre  to  the  ermine  and  dignity  to  his  office. 

One  of  the  earliest  and  most  vigorous  opponents  of  the 
Family  Compact  was  Robert  Gourlay,  a  Scottish  immigrant  of 
an  energetic  and  ambitious,  yet  eccentric  character.  After  a 
somewhat  prominent  career  as  a  political  agitator  in  Great 
Britain,  he  came  to  Canada  for  the  purpose  of  establishing 
himself  as  a  land  agent.  In  order  to  gain  information  on  the 
state  of  the  country,  with  a  view  to  promote  immigration  on 
an  extensive  scale,  he  addressed  a  series  of  statistical  questions 
to  the  principal  inhabitants  of  each  municipality.  The  answers 
received  disclosed  serious  abuses  in  the  management  of  the 
crown  lands  and  clergy  reserves.  In  the  making  of  land  grants 
much  favouritism  had  prevailed.  Extensive  tracts  had  been 
alienated  from  the  crown  without  any  imposition  of  settlement 
duties  or  taxation.  Much  of  the  land  was,  therefore,  held  by 
speculators,  and  allowed  to  remain  in  a  wild  state,  that  its  value 
might  be  enhanced  by  the  cultivation  of  the  settled  districts. 
In  order  to  prevent  this  evil,  whereby  the  progress  of  the  coun- 
try was  retarded,  royal  instructions  vere  issued  forbidding  the 


352  BISTORT  OF  CANADA. 

granting  of  more  than  twelve  hundred  acres  to  any  one  person. 
But  this  instruction  was  often  adroitly  evaded.  A  greedy  land 
agent  would  apply  in  the  names  of  a  number  of  associates  for 
grants  of  twelve  hundred  acres  for  each.  This  application  was 
often  only  a  subterfuge,  and  the  combined  grant,  sometimes 
amounting  to  fifty  thousand  acres,  was  secured  for  the  personal 
advantage  of  the  *'  agent." 

Mr.  Gourlay,  in  1818,  called  a  convention  at  York  (Toronto) , 
of  delegates  from  the  townships  for  the  purpose  of  adopting  a 
petition  to  the  Imperial  parliament  for  the  redress  of  these 
gi'ievances.  In  formulating  the  complaints  of  the  petitioners, 
Mr.  Gourlay  was  exceedingly  severe  in  his  denunciation  of  offi- 
cial mismanagement  and  favouritism.  A  single  extract  will  indi- 
cate his  vehemence  of  style.  "Corruption,"  he  said,  *'has 
reached  such  a  height  in  this  province,  that  it  is  thought  no  other 
part  of  the  British  Empire  witnesses  the  like.  It  matters  not 
what  characters  fill  situations  of  public  trust ;  all  sink  beneath 
the  dignity  of  men,  and  have  become  vitiated  and  weak."  This 
was  a  mode  of  speech  to  which  the  Family  Compact  had 
not  been  accustomed.  For  expressions  in  his  petition  and  ad- 
dresses deemed  libellous,  Gourlay  was,  therefore,  twice  put  on 
his  trial,  and  as  often  acquitted.  He  afterwards  suffered  a  long 
imprisonment  at  Niagara,  on  charge  of  sedition,  and  was 
expelled  from  the  country  through  the  strained  interpretation 
of  the  Alien  Act  of  1804,  which  was  designed  to  check  the 
political  influence  of  immigrants  from  the  United  States. 

The  Legislative  Assembly  fell  in  with  the  humour  of  the 
oligarchic  Executive.  '*  We  remember  that  this  favoured 
land,"  was  the  dutiful  reply  to  the  Governor's  speech,  "was 
assigned  to  our  fathers  as  a  retreat  for  suffering  loyalty,  and 
not  as  a  sanctuary  for  sedition."  The  House,  therefore,  ex- 
pressed its  "just  indignation"  at  the  "designs  of  a  factious 
individual," — so  with  a  good  deal  of  truth  they  designated 
Gourlay,  —  by  passing  an  Act  prohibiting  the  holding  of 
political  conventions.  These  gatherings  were  deemed  doubly 
obnoxious  as  being  a  democratic  importation  from  the  United 


AFTER   THE   WAR  —  VPrER   CANADA.  353 

States,  and  as  an  infringement  on  the  privileges  of  the  legisla- 
ture. 

In  the  meanwhile,  Mr.  Gore  had  been  succeeded  as  Governor 
by  Sir  Peregrine  Maitland,  the  son-in-law  of  the  Duke  of  Rich- 
mond, the  Governor-General.  The  brusque  military  bearing 
of  Sir  Peregrine,  together  with  his  high  notions  of  official  pre- 
rogative, his  alliance  with  the  Family  Compact,  and  his  arbi- 
trary treatment  of  Gourlay,  alienated  from  him  the  popular 
sympathy,  and  intensified  the  feeling  of  dissatisfaction  towards 
the  party  in  power.  The  increased  independence  of  the  Legis- 
lative Assembly  was  indicated  by  the  repeal  of  the  Act  against 
political  conventions  passed  two  years  before,  *  and  the  adop- 
tion, to  the  intense  chagrin  of  the  land  speculators,  of  Gour- 
lay's  suggestion  for  the  taxation  of  wild  lands,  f  The  popula- 
tion of  the  province  having  now  increased  to  one  hundred  and 
twenty  thousand,  the  electoral  representation  in  the  Assembly 
was  also  nearly  doubled. 

The  union  of  the  Canad&s,  proposed  in  the  Imperial  parlia- 
ment as  an  adjustment  of  their  conflicting  claims,  was  generally 
favoured  in  the  upper  province  ;  but,  as  we  have  seen,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  intense  opposition  of  the  French  population  of 
Lower  Canada,  the  proposition  for  the  time  was  withdrawn. 
A  standing  grievance  of  the  western  province  was  the  collec- 
tion at  Montreal  and  Quebec  of  the  revenue  duties  imposed  by 
Lower  Canada  on  all  imports,  —  of  which,  at  first,  only  one- 
eighth,  and,  afterwards,  one-fifth,  were  refunded  to  Upper 
Canada.  As  the  latter  grew  in  wealth  and  population,  and  its 
imports  increased  in  value,  this  was  felt  to  be  a  growing  injus- 
tice. The  Canada  Trade  Act  of  1822  more  equitably  distrib- 
uted these  duties  and  removed  this  grievance.     It  restored  to 

*  It  had  been  passed  veitb  only  one  dissentient  vote,  and  now  there  was  but 
one  Tote  against  its  repeal,  — that  of  Mr.  Eobinson,  afterward  Chief  Justice  of 
Upper  Canada. 

t  Mr.  Gourlay  returned  to  England,  and,  in  1822,  published  a  work  on 
Canada,  largely  statistical,  in  three  large  volumes,  and  twice  afterwards  visited 
the  country.  He  was  subject  to  seasons  of  mental  aberration,  and  was  once 
imprisoned  for  an  assault  on  Lord  Brougham  in  the  lobby  of  the  British  House 
of  Commons. 

45 


354  BISTORT  OF  CANADA. 

the  upper  province  £30,000  of  arrears  due  by  Lower  Canada. 
A  good  deal  of  smuggling  along  the  American  frontier,  how- 
ever, largely  defrauded  the  revenue,  and  corrupted  the  moral 
sense  of  the  community. 

Several  steamboats  now  sailed  on  the  lakes  and  on  the  St. 
Lawrence,  but  the  passage  of  the  rapids  was  made  in  large,  flat 
"Durham  boats,"  which  were  generally  sold  at  Montreal  or 
Quebec,  to  save  the  expense  of  time  and  toil  in  returning 
against  the  strong  current.  The  Lachine  and  Rideau  Canals 
were  now  approaching  completion,  and  the  AVelland  Canal,  a 
work  of  great  national  utility,  connecting  Lake  Erie  and  Lake 
Ontario,  was  projected  by  the  Hon.  William  Hamilton  Merritt, 
of  the  Kiagara  District.  Banks  were  also  established  in  the 
principal  towns,  but  the  benefit  to  be  derived  from  them  was 
greatly  lessened  by  the  large  number  of  American  counterfeit 
bills  which  were  in  circulation.  Agricultural  societies  greatly 
improved  the  mode  of  tillage,  which  was  still  very  imperfect. 
Farm  produce  brought  scarcely  remunerative  prices,  on  account 
of  the  difficulty  of  transport  of  the  surplus  to  the  seaboard ; 
and  the  growth  of  hemp  and  tobacco  received  a  good  deal  of 
attention.  Agricultural  implements  were  still  of  very  rude 
construction,  and  labour-saving  machines,  such  as  reapers  or 
mowers,  were  unknown.  Many  new  townships  were  surveyed 
and  thrown  open  to  settlement.  Our  public-school  system  had 
already  been  established,  1816,  and  was  aided  in  its  infancy  by 
legislative  grants. 

A  somewhat  remarkable  election  question  came  into  prom- 
inent notice  in  the  parliamentary  session  of  1821.  Mr.  Barna- 
bas Bidwell  was  returned  for  the  representation  of  Lennox  and 
Addington.  His  previous  history  was  somewhat  chequered. 
He  had  been  a  resident  of  Massachusetts,  and,  after  the  war  of 
independence,  took  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  United  States, 
became  a  member  of  Congress,  and  Attorney-General  of  the 
State.  He  was  subsequently,  —  in  the  year  1810,  —  accused 
of  malversation  of  public  funds,  and  came  to  Canada,  to  escape 
trial,  as  it  was  alleged.  He  became  a  fast  friend  of  Eobert 
Gourlay,  with  whose  '*  reform  principles,"  as  opposition  to  the 


AFTER   THE   WAR— UPPER   CANADA.  355 

Executive  had  begun  to  be  called,  he  had  a  strong  sympathy. 
His  election  was  protested  against  on  the  ground  that  he  was 
the  subject  of  a  foreign  State  and  a  fugitive  from  justice.  He 
was,  therefore,  expelled  from  the  House,  and  his  son,  Marshall 
Spring  Bidwcll,  who  offered  himself  as  a  candidate  in  his 
stead,  was  defeated  by  a  large  majority.  He  was,  however, 
subsequently  elected,  and  played  a  prominent  part  in  colonial 
politics. 

About  this  time,  the  Rev.  Dr.  Strachan,  a  man  destined  to 
exert  a  powerful  influence  on  the  history  of  Canada,  was 
a^jpointed  by  royal  warrant  a  member  of  the  Legislative 
Council,  and  soon  emerged  into  political  prominence.  The 
story  of  his  life  is  a  striking  illustration  of  what  may  be 
accomplished  by  energy  of  character  and  persistence  of  pur- 
pose. He  was  born  of  humble  parentage  in  the  ancient 
borough  of  Aberdeen,  in  the  year  1778,  and  received  a  clas- 
sical training  at  King's  College  and  at  the  University  of  St. 
Andrews.  At  the  latter,  he  prosecuted  theological  studies 
with  a  view  to  entering  the  ministry  of  the  Kirk  of  Scotland. 
Having  a  mother  and  sisters  dependent  on  his  support,  he  took 
charge  of  a  village  school  on  a  stipend  of  £30  per  year. 
Among  his  pupils  were  the  afterwards  celebrated  Sir  David 
"VVilkie,  and  the  unfortunate  Commodore  Eobert  Barclay. 
Among  the  many  schemes  of  colonial  advancement  of  General 
Simcoe,  first  Governor  of  Upper  Canada,  was  one  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  college  or  university,  at  York,  and  of  grammar 
schools  throughout  the  country.  The  charge  of  organizing  this 
college  was  offered  successively  to  Thomas,  afterwards  Dr., 
Chalmers,  and  to  the  humble  schoolmaster,  John  Strachan.  It 
was  accepted  by  the  latter,  and,  after  a  four  months'  voyage,  on 
the  last  day  of  the  century,  he  reached  Kingston.  To  his  in- 
tense disappointment.  Governor  Simcoe  had  left  the  countrj', 
and  his  comprehensive  educational  scheme  was  abandoned.  The 
indomitable  Scotch  schoolmaster  opened  a  school  in  Kingston. 
Under  the  advice  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Stuart,  archdeacon  of 
Upper  Canada,  he  studied  divinity  with  a  view  to  taking  holy 
orders  in  the  Church  of  England.     In   due   course,  he  was 


356  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

ordained  deacon  and  priest,  and  appointed  to  the  mission  of 
Cornwall.  Here  he  established  the  grammar-school,  and, 
among  his  distinguished  pupils,  were  the  late  Sir  John  Beverly 
Eobinson,  Sir  J.  B.  Macaulay,  and  the  Hon.  Jonas  Jones.  He 
became,  in  rapid  succession,  rector  of  York,  chaplain  to  the 
Legislative  Assembly,  member  of  the  Legislative  Council,  and 
first  Anglican  Bishop  of  Upper  Canada.  When  raised  to  the 
episcopal  dignity,  his  missionary  zeal  and  energy  largely  con- 
tributed to  the  extension  and  prosperity  of  the  Church  of 
England  in  his  adopted  country.  On  its  behalf  he  also 
exerted  his  powerful  i3olitical  influence.  * 

Indications  -were  not  -wanting  that  a  popular  re-action  w^as 
taking  place  against  the  party  in  power.  The  feeling  against 
the  monopoly  by  the  Anglican  Church  of  the  clergy  reserves, 
1823.  was  show^n  by  an  appeal  from  the  Assembly  to  the 
British  parliament  for  the  admission  of  the  Kirk  of  Scotland 
to  a  share  of  this  liberal  endowment.  The  levying  of  eccle- 
siastical tithes  was  jDrohibited.  A  bill  authorizing  Methodist 
ministers  to  perform  the  marriage  ceremony  was  passed  by  the 
Assembly,  but  rejected  by  the  Upi3er  House.  The  general 
election  of  1824  resulted  in  favour  of  the  Eeform  party,  as  it 
now  began  to  be  called.  Among  the  members  elected  were 
Dr.  Rolph,  Peter  Perry,  and  Marshall  Bidwell,  prominent 
champions  of  popular  rights,  to  prevent  whose  return  the 
1825.  Family  Compact  had  made  every  effort.  The  struggle 
of  parties  over  the  Speakership  of  the  Assembly  resulted  in 
the  election  of  John  Wilson  of  Wentworth,  a  plain,  honest 
farmer,  by  a  Eeform  majority  of  two.  The  Family  Compact, 
for  the  first  time,  was  in  a  minority  in  the  House,  f 

The  chief  thorn  in  the  side  of  the  hitherto  dominant  party, 
however,  was  a  new  "grievance  monger"  of  the  Gourlay 
stamp.  William  Lyon  Mackenzie,  born  1795,  was  the  son  of 
humble  Perthshire  parents.     His  father  died  before  he  w^as  a 

*  He  died  November  2,  1867,  aged  eiglity-nine. 

t  This  year  the  parliament  Luikliiig  at  York  was  'biTmed,  causing  a  loss  to 
the  province  of  £2,000.  The  library,  however,  which  was  a  very  considerable 
one,  was  saved. 


I 


AFTER   THE    WAR— UPPER   CAXADA.  357 

month  old.  His  widowed  mother  endeavoured,  amid  often 
pressing  poverty,  to  give  her  son  the  best  education  in  her 
power.  He  was  a  voracious,  but  indiscriminate  reader,  and 
dcvehiped  indomitable  energy  of  character.  After  a  somewhat 
restless  and  erratic  career  in  the  old  country,  he  emigrated,  in 
his  twenty-fifth  year,  to  Canada.  Having  undergone  a  varied 
experience  at  storckeeping  in  York,  Dundas,  and  Niagara,  he 
found  at  last  his  true  vocation  as  a  journalist.  His  intense 
hatred  of  injustice,  and  his  natural  impetuosity  of  disposition, 
hurried  him  into  intemperance  of  expression  and  action.  His 
remarkable  industry  in  ferreting  out  abuses  —  which  were  only 
too  easily  found — and  his  pungent  style  of  editorial  criticism, 
made  the  "Colonial  Advocate,"  as  his  paper  was  called,  par- 
ticularly obnoxious  to  the  party  in  f)ower.  Having  removed 
to  York,  during  a  temporary  absence  from  home  his  isse. 
printing-office  was  sacked,  his  press  wrecked,  and  his  type 
scattered  by  some  young  men  connected  with  the  dominant 
party,  which  had  taken  offence  at  the  biting  criticism  of  his 
paper  upon  some  of  their  public  acts.  He  sued  the  aggressors 
for  damages,  and  received  the  award  of  £625.  The  event  was 
a  fortunate  one  for  him,  as  it  gave  a  new  lease  of  life  to  the 
"  Advocate  "  which  had  been  on  the  eve  of  suspension  for  lack 
of  patronage.  He  also  won  favour  as  a  champion  of  popular 
rights,  and  was  shortly  after  returned  as  a  Eeform  member  of 
the  Assembly  for  the  county  of  York. 

The  personal  appearance  of  this  remarkable  man,  who  played 
such  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  history  of  his  adopted  country, 
is  thus  sketched  by  one  who  knew  him  well;  "  Of  slender 
frame,  and  only  five  feet  six  inches  in  stature,  his  massive  head, 
bald  from  early  fever,  and  high  and  broad  in  the  frontal  region, 
looked  far  too  large  for  the  small  body  it  surmounted.  His  eye, 
clear  and  piercing,  his  firm-set  Scotch  mouth,  his  chin  long  and 
broad,  and  the  general  contour  of  his  features,  made  up  a  coun- 
tenance indicative  of  strong  will  and  great  resolution,  while  the 
ceaseless  activity  of  his  fingers,  and  the  perpetual  twitching  of 
the   lower  part  of  his   face,   betrayed    that  restlessness  and 


358  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

nervousness  of  disposition  which  so  darldy  clouded  his  exist- 
ence." 

Among  the  schemes  proposed  for  the  development  of  the 
waste  lands  of  the  province  was  the  establishment  of  the 
Canada  Land  Company.  It  w^as  incorporated  by  royal  charter 
in  1826.  Its  headquarters  were  in  London,  and  its  capital  was 
furnished  by  English  money-kings.  It  proposed  to  buy  up  all 
the  crown  and  clergy  reserves.  The  objection  being  raised  by 
the  clergy  corporation  that  the  price  offered  for  their  reserves 
was  too  low,  the  Company  obtained  a  free  grant  of  a  million 
acres  in  the  Huron  country  in  lieu  thereof.  It  agreed  to  pay 
£350,000  sterling,  in  sixteen  years,  for  two  million  three  hun- 
dred thousand  acres  additional,  and  to  construct  colonization 
roads  and  other  works  of  public  utility.  These  provisions ,  how- 
ever, were  only  partially  carried  out,  and  much  of  the  land,  as 
well  as  the  militia  grants  for  service  rendered  during  the  war, 
fell  into  the  hands  of  speculators,  who  held  it  for  their  private 
advantage. 

Sir  John  Colborne,  a  gentleman  of  somewhat  stern  military 
character,  who  had  succeeded  as  Governor  Sir  Peregrine  Mait- 
1829.  land  —  transferred  to  Nova  Scotia  —  met  a  new  par- 
liament more  outspoken  in  its  opposition  to  the  Executive 
Council  than  any  that  had  preceded  it.  A  significant  fact  was 
the  election  of  Marshall  Bidwell,  an  ultra-liberal,  to  the  Speaker's 
chair.  Mr.  Collins,  the  editor  of  the  *'  Canadian  Freeman," 
had  been  fined  and  imprisoned  on  a  libel  suit  urged  by  Attorney- 
General  Robinson.  The  Assembly  petitioned  for  his  pardon,  on 
account  of  his  young  and  helpless  family.  The  Governor  de- 
clined to  remit  the  penalty,  and  thus  became  so  obnoxious  to  the 
popular  party  that  he  was  burned  in  e^gy  at  Hamilton.  On 
petition  of  the  Assembly,  King  George  IV.  not  only  released 
the  prisoner,  but  refunded  the  fine.  Such  a  wise  exercise  of 
clemency  on  the  part  of  the  Governor  would  have  conciliated 
public  feeling,  but  it  was  unfortunately  neglected. 

The  "  Compact"  soon  sustained  a  defeat  in  its  stronghold  in 
the  election  of  Robert  Baldwin  over  its  candidate,  Mr.  Charles 
Small,    for   the   representation   of  the   town   of  York.      Mr. 


AFTER   THE    WAR— UPPER   CANADA.  359 

Baldwin,  who  was  a  native  of  the  town  which  he  now  rep- 
resented, during  the  entire  course  of  his  public  life,  com- 
manded the  esteem  of  both  political  parties.  His  father, 
William  Warren  Baldwin,  came  to  Canada  in  1798,  from  the 
County  Cork,  Ireland.  Although  educated  for  a  physician,  he 
adopted  the  practice  of  law,  in  which  profession  he  attained 
distinguished  success.  He  represented  for  some  years  the 
county  of  Norfolk  in  the  Legislative  Assembly,  and  six  months 
before  his  death,  was  called  to  the  Council.  His  son,  who 
adopted  his  father's  profession,  on  the  elevation  to  the  Bench 
of  Attorney-General  Eobinson,  was  elected  as  his  successor  in 
the  Assembly.  His  personal  integrity,  his  legal  ability,  his 
singular  moderation,  enabled  him,  as  has  been  admirably  said, 
*'  to  lead  his  country  through  a  great  constitutional  crisis  into 
an  era  of  larger  and  more  matured  liberty."  Not  a  breath  of 
calumny  stained  his  reputation.  Although  devoid  of  the  art 
of  winning  popular  applause,  and  a  parliamentary  leader  in  a 
time  of  intense  political  excitement,  he  yet  conciliated  the  good- 
will even  of  his  opponents.  He  inherits  the  gratitude  of  the 
country  for  labouring  by  constitutional  methods  to  procure 
resi^onsiljle  government  till  success  at  length  crowned  his 
efforts. 

On  the  30th  of  November  in  this  year,  1829,  the  Welland 
Canal  was  opened  for  navigation,  thus  inaugurating  a  new  era 
in  the  commerce  of  the  countr3^  In  the  same  year  was  estab- 
lished the  first  religious  newspaper  of  Upper  Canada,  the 
"Christian  Guardian,"  the  organ  of  the  Wesleyan  Methodist 
Church,  under  the  editorship  of  the  Eev.  Egerton  Eyerson. 

The  casual  and  territorial  revenue  of  the  crown,  as  we  have 
seen,  made  the  Executive  Council  quite  independent  of  the 
Legislative  Assembly.  A  petition,  signed  by  over  three  thou- 
sand of  the  inhabitants  of  Upper  Canada,  was  this  year  pre- 
sented by  Mr.  Stanley,  afterwards  Lord  Derby,  to  the  Imperial 
parliament,  praying  for  the  limitation  of  power  of  the  Council. 
It  urged  that  the  independence  of  the  Bench  should  be  guaran- 
teed, as  in  the  mother  country,  and  that  "  local  and  responsible 
administration," — that  is,  government  based  on  a  parliamentary 


360  BISTORT  OF  CANADA. 

majority,  —  should  be  granted,  as  the  panacea  for  the  political 
troubles  of  the  colony. 

The  Legislative  Assembly  continued  to  assert  its  right  of 
control  over  the  revenues  of  the  province,  and  did  not  hesitate, 
1830.  although  in  vain,  to  ask  for  the  dismissal  of  the  Execu- 
tive Council.  The  growing  breach  between  the  two  branches 
of  the  legislature  was  seen  in  the  rejection  by  the  Upper  House 
of  forty  bills  passed  by  the  Assembly.  The  struggle  for 
"responsible  government"  had  begun.  Mackenzie's  per- 
petual grievance-motions  were  continually  unearthing  abuses 
that  needed  correction.  Pension-lists,  official  salaries,  the 
corrupt  constitution  of  the  House,  were  all  attacked  with  sting- 
ing sarcasm.  The  inequalities  of  representation  were  glaring. 
One  member  had  only  thirteen  constituents.  The  members  for 
York  and  Lanark  represented  more  persons  than  the  members 
for  fifteen  other  constituencies.  The  House  was  filled  with 
placemen,  —  postmasters,  sherifis,  registrars,  revenue  officers, 
and  collectors. 

Through  a  popular  re-action,  the  general  election  of  1830 
resulted  in  a  majority  of  supporters  of  the  Family  Compact 
administration.  This  fact  intensified  the  virulence  of  the  con- 
flict which  was  to  ensue.  Outside  of  the  House  Mackenzie  was 
as  active  as  inside.  He  traversed  the  country,  held  public 
meetings,  and  circulated  petitions  to  the  throne,  which  were 
signed  by  nearly  twenty-five  thousand  persons,  praying  for  the 
secularization  of  the  clergy  reserves,  for  law  reform,  for  the 
exclusion  of  judges  and  the  clergy  from  parliament,  for  the 
abolition  of  primogeniture,  for  the  legislative  control  of  public 
moneys,  and  for  other  reforms  which  have  long  since  become 
the  law  of  the  land.  A  caustic  article  in  the  "  Colonial  Advo- 
cate "  was  deemed  a  breach  of  parliamentary  privilege,  and 
Mackenzie  was  expelled  from  the  Assembly. 

Popular  sympathy  was  largely  enlisted  in  favour  of  the 
champion  of  popular  rights,  as  he  was  by  his  friends  regarded. 
On  the  day  of  his  expulsion,  nearly  a  thousand  petitioners  pro- 
ceeded in  a  body  to  the  Government  House,  requesting  the  dis- 
solution of  the  parliament.     Only  a  curt  and  formal  acknowledg- 


I 


AFTER    THE    WAR— UPPER    CANADA.  361 

meut  of  the  receiiDt  of  the  petition  Wii3  vouchsafed ;  but 
troops  were  placed  under  arms  to  suppress  with  rigour  the 
riot  which  was  apprehended.  The  petitioners,  however,  con- 
tented themselves  with  cheering  for  Mackenzie,  aud  hooting 
at  the  parliament.  As  a  bid  for  popular  favour  the  Assembly 
voted  an  address  to  the  crown  in  favour  of  the  sale  of  the 
clergy  reserves,  and  the  application  of  the  proceeds  to  the 
purpose  of  education. 

]\fackenzie,  however,  was  returned  by  a  triumphant  majority,* 
and  he  was  presented  with  a  gold  medal  valued  at  sixty  issa.t 
pounds.  He  was  accompanied  by  an  immense  crowd  to  the 
parliament  buildings,  many  of  whom  forced  their  way  into  the 
Assembly  chamber,  only  to  hear  a  motion  of  expulsion  of  the 
popular  idol  proposed  as  he  stood  to  be  sworn  in  at  the  bar  of  the 
House.  The  motion  was  defeated,  but  in  three  days  an  obnox- 
ious article  in  the  "  Advocate  "  gave  fresh  ground  for  repeating 
the  act  of  expulsion.  Elevated  by  this  persecution,  as  it  was 
deemed,  into  a  popular  hero,  he  was  re-elected  and  sent  to 
England  to  support  the  petitions  to  the  King  for  the  redress  of 
grievances.  He  remained  in  England  eighteen  months,  obtained 
a  patient  hearing  at  the  Colonial  Office,  and  received  the  co- 
operation of  distinguished  statesmen,  especially  of  the  late  Mr. 
Joseph  Ilume,  in  urging  on  the  Imperial  Government  the  liber- 
alizing of  the  Canadian  administration.  On  his  return  he  was 
again  three  times  expelled  from  the  Assembly,  and  as  often 
returned  by  large  majorities.  He  was  also,  as  a  mark  of  pub- 
lic favour,  elected  first  mayor  of  Toronto,  now  incor-  xsza. 
porated  as  a  city. 

The  Executive  Council  lost  influence  with  each  triumph  of 
its  opponents,  and  by  the  general  election  of  1835  the  Re- 

*  In  an  liour  and  a  half  he  received  a  hundred  and  nineteen  votes,  when  his 
opponent,  Mr.  Street,  who  had  only  received  one,  retired  from  the  hopeless 
contest. 

t  In  this  year,  Canada  received  a  sad  visitation  of  that  Asiatic  plague,  the 
cholera.  The  immigration  of  the  season  was  large,  and  the  crowded  and  ill- 
ventilated  condition  of  the  emigrant  vessels  intensified  the  virulence  of  the 
disease.  It  spread  from  Quebec  aud  Montreal  throughout  the  upper  province, 
and  not  till  the  cool  days  of  autumn  arrived  was  the  deadly  scourge  removed. 
46 


362  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

form  party  obtained  a  majority  in  the  Assembly.  Appar- 
ently apprehending  the  distribution  of  the  clergy  reserves 
among  the  various  denominations,  the  Executive  Council  set 
apart  for  the  maintenance  of  the  Church  of  England  fifty-seven 
rectories,  with  attached  glebe  lands.  These  were  placed  in 
possession  of  clergj^men  of  that  Church,  with  a  view  of  debar- 
ring their  alienation  by  future  legislation.  The  Kirk  of  Scot- 
land had  previously  been  admitted  to  share  those  lands.  Sir 
1836.  John  Colborne,  unable  to  control  the  rising  tide  of 
political  agitation,  requested  his  recall,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Sir  Francis  Bond  Head. 


THE  REBELLION— LOWER  CANADA.  3G3 


CHAPTER  XXVn. 

THE  REBELLION  —  LOWER  CANADA. 

Political  Disaffection  —  Sir  James  Kempt,  Governor-General,  1828  —  Lord 
Aylmer,  Governor-General,  1830  —  Fatal  Election  Riot  at  Montreal  —  Large 
Immigration  —  Outbreak  of  Cholera  —  Papineau's  "  Ninety-Two  Resolu- 
tions," 1834  —  Lord  Gosford,  Governor-General,  1835  —  Seditious  Gather- 
ings —  Accession  of  Queen  Victoria,  1837  —  Sir  John  Colborne  Assumes 
Chief  Military  Command  —  Troops  Concentrate  at  Montreal  —  Papineau 
Inflames  Sedition  —  Collision  at  Montreal  —  The  Rebels  Rendezvous  on 
the  Richelieu  —  Repulse  of  Colonel  Gore  —  Murder  of  Lieutenant  Weir  — 
Colonel  Wetherall  Routs  Rebels  at  St.  Charles,  November  25  —  Sir 
John  Colborne  Routs  Rebels  at  St.  Eustache  and  St.  Benoit,  December  14 
—  Lord  Durham,  Governor-General  and  High  Commissioner,  1838  —  His 
Magnanimous  Character  —  His  Policy  Condemned  as  Ultra  Vires  —  His 
Chagrin  and  Resignation  —  His  Masterly  Report  —  Second  Outbreak  of 
Rebellion  —  Insurgents  Routed  at  Odelltown  —  Rebellion  Suppressed  in 
Lower  Canada. 

IN  Lower  Canada,  in  the  meanwhile,  the  breach  between  the 
popular  Assembly  and  the  Executive  Council  was  conthmally 
becoming  wider.  The  liberal  concessions  of  the  Home  Govern- 
ment were  met  by  increased  and  unreasonable  demands.  The 
object  sought  was  not,  as  in  Upper  Canada,  the  establishment 
of  responsible  government,  but  to  effect  the  supremacy  of  the 
French  race  and  its  absolute  control  over  the  Executive.  The 
Government  refused  to  give  up  its  casual  and  territorial 
revenue,  derived  from  timber  and  mining  dues,  and  the  sale  of 
crown  lands,  which  had  been  guaranteed  to  it  by  the  Quebec 
Act  of  1774,  or  to  render  the  Legislative  Council  elective, 
and  thus  make  it  the  facile  instrument  of  the  French 
majority.* 

The  conciliatory  policy  of  Sir  James  Kempt,  who  succeeded 
Lord  Dalhousie  in  1828,  equally  with  that  of  Lord  Aylmer, 
who  became  Governor  in  1830,  failed  to  satisfy  the  aggressive 

*  Only  eleven  out  of  eighty-eight  members  of  the  Assembly  in  1830,  or  one- 
eighth  of  the  whole,  were  British. 


364 


HISTORY  OF  CAXADA. 


demands  of  the  Assembly.  Although  the  control  of  the 
revenue  was  ceded  to  it,  it  ungenerously  refused  to  vote  the 
supplies  for  the  civil  list.  The  salaries  of  the  Judges  and 
Government  officials  fell  into  arrears,  and  the  Governor  was 
precluded  by  his  "instructions"  from  drawing  upon  the 
Eeceiver-Geueral,  as  Lord  Dalhousie  had  done,  to  make  up 
the  deficiency.  An  election  riot  in  Montreal,  in  which  three 
men  were  killed  by  the  fire  of  the  military,  intensified  the 
national  antipathy  of  the  French  to  the  British.  During  the 
summer  of  1831,  an  immigration  of  fifty  thousand  souls,  chiefly 
Irish,  arrived  at  Quebec,  and  passed  up  the  valley  of  the  St. 
Lawrence,  "  like  a  disorganized  army,"  said  a  contemporary 
journal,  "  leaving  the  inhabitants  to  provide  for  the  sick  and 
wounded  and  to  bury  the  dead."  The  dreadful  ravages  of  the 
cholera,  which  spread  from  Grosse  Isle  over  the  whole  country. 


PALACE    GATE,    QUEBEC. 


carried  death  and  dismay  to  almost  all  the  frontier  towns  and 
villages.     The   immigration   of  the    "British   foreigners,"   as 


THE  REBELLION— LOWER   CANADA.  365 

they  M'cre  called,  was  denounced  as  an  invasion  of  the 
territorial  rights  of  the  French  population.  Three  years  later, 
a  still  more  fatal  visitation  of  the  cholera  occurred.  During 
the  administration  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington  as  Prime 
Minister  of  England,  the  fortifications  of  Quebec  were 
thoroughly  re-constructed  on  their  present  magnificent  scale, 
after  designs  approved  by  that  veteran  soldier.  Palace  Gate, 
shown  in  the  engraving,  modelled  after  one  of  the  gates  of 
Pompeii,  is  one  of  these  re-constructions,  erected  in  1831. 

M.  Papineau,  ten  years  previously  the  eulogist  of  British 
power,  now  exhausted  his  rhetoric  in  inveighing  against  its 
tyranny.  "  La  Canadien,"  newspaper,  which  had  been  issi. 
suppressed  under  the  administration  of  Sir  James  Craig,  was 
revived.  It  added  fuel  to  the  flame,  by  denouncing  the  British 
as  usurpers,  foreigners,  intruders.  The  British  press,  on  the 
other  hand,  stigmatized  the  French-Canadians  as  ungrateful  to 
the  authority  which  had  treated  them  so  generously.  Thus  the 
antipathies  of  race  were  intensified.  The  Legislative  Assem])ly 
formulated  in  the  celebrated  *'  Ninety-two  Eesolutions,"  written 
chiefly  by  Papineau,  every  real  or  imaginary  grievance  under 
which  the  country  laboured.  Petitions  founded  on  these  reso- 
lutions were  laid  before  the  King  and  the  Lnperial  parliament, 
and  counter-petitions  were  presented  by  the  British  population. 
Lord  Stanley,  the  Colonial  Secretary,  was  opposed  to  the  con- 
cessions demanded  by  the  malcontents.  An  influential  com- 
mittee, of  which  Lord  Lytton,  and  the  celebrated  Lish  Liberal, 
Daniel  O'Connell,  were  leading  members,  gave  a  patient  hearing 
to  the  complaints  of  both  parties.  Notwithstanding  the  covert 
threat  of  rebellion  in  the  French-Canadian  petitions,  the  Home 
Government  continued  its  policy  of  conciliation. 

Lord  Gosford  was  appointed  to  succeed  Lord  Aylmer  in  the 
ungrateful  ofiice  of  Governor,  and  with  him  were  associated  Sir 
Charles  Grey  and  Sir  George  Gipps  as  a  commission  of  1835. 
inquiry  to  investigate  the  alleged  grievances  of  the  Assembly. 
These  liberal  measures  failed  to  meet  the  unreasonable  wishes 
of  the  turbulent  French  majority.  Papineau,  the  idol  of  the 
ignorant  habiians,  intoxicated  with  power,  boldly  avowed  his 


366  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

republican  princqoles.  *'The  time  has  gone  by,"  he  said, 
' '  when  Europe  could  give  monarchs  to  America.  The  epoch  is 
approaching  when  America  will  give  republics  to  Europe." 
Visions  of  La  N'ation  Canadienne^  whose  positions  of  dignity 
should  be  engrossed  by  himself  and  his  countrymen,  lured  him 
on  to  open  rebellion.  The  French  were  known  to  be  secretly 
drilling,  and  loyal  volunteer  associations  were  formed  among 
the  British  population  for  the  defence  of  the  Government. 

The  spark  was  applied  to  these  explosive  elements  by  the 
action  of  the  British  Parliament  on  the  report  of  the  royal  com- 
mission of  inquiry.  Wearied  by  the  rejection  of  its  policy  of 
1837.  conciliation,  the  Home  Government  now  adopted  one 
of  a  more  vigorous  character.  This  policy  was  indicated  in  the 
celebrated  "Ten  Eesolutions"  of  Lord  John  Eussell.  Not- 
withstanding the  opposition  of  Lord  Brougham,  these  were 
adopted  by  the  House.  By  destroying  the  hopes  of  the  radical 
leaders  in  both  Upper  and  Lower  Canada,  they  tended  to 
precipitate  the  rebellion  in  either  province.  Instead  of  antici- 
pated concessions,  they  strengthened  the  authority  of  the 
colonial  Executive. 

For  five  years  the  Assembly  had  voted  no  civil  list.  The 
British  officials  and  judges  were  consequently  reduced  to 
extreme  inconvenience.  The  Governor-General  was  empowered 
to  take  £142,000  out  of  the  treasury  to  pay  these  arrears.  The 
demand  for  an  elective  Council  was  refused.  The  indignation 
of  the  French  population  when  these  resolutions  were  made 
known  was  intense.  They  met  in  turbulent  assemblies,  with 
arms  in  their  hands.  Lord  Gosford  issued  a  proclamation  for- 
bidding these  seditious  gatherings.  It  was  torn  down  with 
contempt,  and  with  shouts  of  "  Long  live  Papineau  ! "  "Down 
with  despotism  ! "  The  hahitans  were  urged  to  use  no  material 
of  British  manufacture,  and  their  leaders  appeared  clad  in 
homespun.  The  accession,  after  an  interval  of  a  century  and  a 
quarter,  of  a  female  sovereign,  awoke  no  feelings  of  loyalty  in 
the  rebel  faction,  and  they  plotted  as  vigorously  against  the 
throne  and  crown  of  Queen  Victoria  as  they  had  against  the 
citizen  King,  William  IV.     The  Roman  Catholic  bishops  and 


THE  REBELLION— LOWER   CANADA,  867 

clergy  now  interposed  their  authority  to  prevent  an  outbreak. 
The  rites  of  the  Church  "were  refused  to  all  who  took  pdrt  in 
the  revolt.  But  even  the  threat  of  excommunication  seemed  to 
have  little  effect  on  the  exasperated  habitans.  Under  the  evil 
guidance  of  their  infatuated  leaders,  they  rushed  headlong  into 
rebellion.  But  although  the  influence  of  the  Catholic  clergy 
for  a  time  seemed  disregarded,  they  contributed  efl^ectively  to 
the  suppression  of  the  revolt. 

Never  was  a  people  less  fitted  for  the  exercise  of  political 
power  than  the  French  habitans.  Nine-tenths  of  them  were 
unable  to  read,  and  none  of  them  had  a  spark  of  that  love 
of  constitutional  liberty  in  which  the  English  nation  had  so 
long  been  trained.  With  a  blind  partisanship,  they  followed 
the  demagogues  who  had  inflamed  their  national  prejudices  and 
passions.  Apparently  the  liberal  party  in  Lower  Canada,  they 
yet  advocated  re-actionary  measures,  and  strove  to  revive  the 
old  French  policy  of  resistance  to  popular  education,  immigra- 
tion, or  any  innovation  of  English  customs,  laws,  language,  or 
institutions.  The  British  population,  the  real  safeguard  of 
constitutional  liberty,  although  largely  conservative  of  class 
privileges,  were  driven  by  the  violence  of  the  French  into  an 
apparent  opposition  to  some  of  its  vital  principles. 

To  meet  the  coming  storm.  Sir  John  Colborne,  a  prompt  and 
energetic  officer,  was  appointed  to  the  military  command  of  the 
provinces.  The  few  troojDS  in  Upper  and  Lower  Canada,  only 
some  three  thousand  in  all,  were  chiefly  concentrated  at  Mon- 
treal, the  focus  of  disafiiection.  The  military  stores,  during  the 
long  peace  of  twenty-two  years,  were  well-nigh  destroyed  by 
damp  and  rust,  or  consumed  by  moths  and  worms.  But 
Papineau,  the  leader  of  the  rebellion,  was  an  empty  gasconader, 
void  of  statesmanship  or  military  ability  —  "a  braggart  in  the 
forum,  a  coward  in  the  field."  Dr.  Wolfred  Nelson,  the  second 
in  authority,  was  of  English  descent,  born  in  Montreal,  and 
speaking  French  like  a  native.  He  was  thoroughly  identified 
in  sympathy  with  the  habitans,  and  under  the  influence  of 
Papineau,  but  had  more  of  the  military  spirit  than  his  political 
leader.      As  the,  summer  waned,  the  symptoms  of  revolt  in- 


368  BISTORT  OF  CANADA. 

creased.  The  French  tri-colour  and  eagle  appeared,  and 
turbulent  mobs  of  "  Patriots,"  or  of  "  Sons  of  Liberty,"  sang 
revolutionary  songs.  Loyal  associations  of  ' '  Constitutionalists  " 
were  also  formed.  Volunteer  companies  of  infantry  and  cavalry 
were  armed  and  drilled  for  the  defence  of  the  Government. 
Offers  of  assistance  from  the  militia  of  the  upper  province,  and 
of  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick,  were  also  received.  The 
first  armed  collision  took  place  in  the  streets  of  Montreal, 
Noveml)er  6,  1837.  A  large  body  of  *'  Sons  of  Liberty," 
excited  by  incendiary  harangues,  met  a  much  smaller  number  of 
the  *' Doric  Club,"  a  loyal  British  association.  A  free  fight 
with  sticks  and  stones  ensued.  Pistol  shots  were  also  fired, 
windows  broken,  and,  the  loyalists  rallying,  the  office  of  the 
"Vindicator,"  an  obnoxious  radical  paper,  was  wrecked. 
Warrants  were  soon  issued  for  the  arrest  of  the  leaders  of  the 
revolt. 

On  the  16th  of  November,  the  first  armed  resistance  to  the 
authorities  took  place.  Lieutenant  Armatinger,  with  a  force  of 
eighteen  volunteer  cavalry,  was  returning  from  St.  John  to 
Montreal  with  two  prisoners,  whom  they  had  apprehended  for 
treasonable  practices.  As  they  approached  Longueuil,  they 
came  upon  a  body  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  armed  men,  posted 
behind  an  improvised  breastwork.  The  insurgents  opened  fire 
on  the  military,  wounded  the  leader  and  five  men,  and  rescued 
the  prisoners.  This  success  greatly  inspirited  the  rebels,  who 
rendezvoused  in  large  numbers  at  St.  Charles  and  St.  Denis,  on 
the  Richelieu,  seven  miles  apart,  where  there  was  considerable 
disaffection  among  the  population.  The  proximity  of  American 
territory  furnished  facilities  for  assistance  from  sympathizers, 
and  of  escape  for  fugitives.  On  the  23d  of  November,  Colonel 
Gore,  with  three  hundred  men  and  only  one  cannon,  attacked 
Dr.  Nelson,  with  a  large  body  of  rebels,  at  the  latter  place. 
Papineau,  on  the  first  appearance  of  danger,  deserted  his  dupes 
and  fled  over  the  border  into  the  United  States.  Nelson, 
strongly  posted  in  a  large  stone  brewery,  maintained  a  vigorous 
defence.  Gore's  command,  worn  out  with  a  long  night-march 
through  November  rain  and  mire,  outnumbered,  and  without 


TEE  REBELLION  — LOWER   CANADA.  369 

artillery  for  battering  the  stone  walls,  was  compelled,  after  six 
hours'  fighting,  to  retreat,  with  the  loss  of  six  killed  and  seven- 
teen wounded.  The  insurgents  lost  thirteen  killed  and  several 
wounded.  Lieutenant  Weir,  a  young  officer  carrying  de- 
spatches, was  intercepted,  j^inioned,  and  was  being  conveyed  in 
a  cart  to  the  rebel  camp  at  St.  Charles.  Attempting  to  escape, 
he  was  "  mercilessly  shot,  sabred,  hacked,  and  stabbed  as  if  he 
had  been  a  mad  dog  "  —  an  act  of  cruelty  which  led  to  bitter 
retaliation. 

The  elated  rebels  now  swelled  the  camp  of  "General" 
Thomas  Storrow  Brown,  at  St.  Charles,  to  about  a  thousand 
men.  They  were  protected  by  a  rough  breastwork  of  felled 
trees.  Colonel  Wetherall  moved  down  the  Eichelieu  from 
Chambly  to  attack  their  position.  The  roads  were  ankle-deep 
with  mire  ;  but  "Wetherall,  two  days  after  the  defeat  at  St. 
Denis,  mth  five  hundred  men  and  three  guns,  confronted  the 
enemy.  They  were  summoned  peaceably  to  disperse,  but 
refused.  A  few  rounds  from  the  guns  breached  the  entrench- 
ments, when  the  troops  charged  on  the  insurgents  and  put  them 
to  utter  rout.  Fifty-six  were  slain,  and  several  fugitives 
perished  miserably  in  the  houses  fired  in  revenge  for  the  death 
of  "Weir.  Nelson  now  fled  from  St.  Denis,  but,  after  ten  days' 
skulking  in  the  snowy  woods,  was  caught,  and,  with  many  other 
rebel  prisoners,  lodged  in  Montreal  jail. 

Martial  law  was  now  proclaimed.  In  the  middle  of  Decem- 
ber, Sir  John  Colborne,  with  two  thousand  troops,  left  Mon- 
treal to  attack  a  thousand  insurgents  entrenched  at  St.  Eustache, 
on  the  Ottawa,  nineteen  miles  from  Montreal.  The  main  body 
fled,  but  four  hundred  threw  themselves  into  the  church  and 
adjacent  buildings.  The  shot  and  shells  of  the  cannon  soon 
fired  the  roof  and  battered  the  walls.  In  the  conflagration  that 
ensued,  fanned  by  a  high  wind,  sixty  buildings  were  consumed. 
Some  of  the  insurgents,  who  had  climbed  the  steeple  of  the 
church,  perished  miserably  in  the  flames.  Their  rescue  by  the 
horrified  spectators  was  impossible.  The  total  loss  of  the  rebels 
was  a  hundred  killed,  as  many  wounded,  and  as  many  more 
made  prisoners.     At  St.  Benoit,  a  hot-bed  of  sedition,  two 

47 


370  mSTORT  OF  CANADA.  " 

hundred  and  fifty  men  surrendered  under  a  flag  of  truce,  and, 
except  their  leaders,  were  sent  home  unhurt. 

On  the  28th  of  February,  six  hundred  rebel  refugees  re- 
1838.  crossed  the  frontier  from  the  United  States,  but  were 
repulsed  by  the  local  militia,  and  afterwards  disarmed  by  the 
American  authorities  at  Plattsburg. 

Lord  Gosford  was  now  recalled,  though  without  any  censure 
of  his  policy.  The  Home  Government  suspended  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  country,  and  created  a  special  Council,  half  English 
and  half  French,  to  act  in  the  place  of  the  legislature.  The 
first  act  of  the  Council,  whose  decrees  had  all  the  force  of  law, 
was  the  suspension  of  the  Habeas  Corpus  act,  in  order  to  the 
more  prompt  and  effective  suppression  of  the  revolt.  The  Earl 
of  Durham  was,  at  the  same  time,  appointed  Governor-General 
and  high  commissioner  for  the  settlement  of  public  affairs  in 
the  two  Canadas.  He  was  a  noblemen  of  great  political 
experience,  and  had  been  educated  in  a  liberal  school.  His 
personal  character  was  attractive,  and  his  private  hospitality 
princely.  He  was  to  the  last  degree  unmercenary,  refusing 
any  recompense  for  his  distinguished  services.  He  was  refined 
and  courteous  in  manner,  but  tenacious  of  his  convictions  of 
duty,  and  firm  in  carrying  them  into  execution.  On  his  arrival 
in  the  country,  May  27,  he  announced  himself  as  the  friend 
and  arbitrator  of  the  people,  without  distinction  of  party,  race 
or  creed.  And  amply  he  fulfilled  his  pledge  in  the  spirit  of 
the  purest  and  most  disinterested  statesmanship.  He  appointed 
a  commission  of  inquiry  into  the  administration  of  the  crown 
land  department,  redressed  grievances  therein,  and,  as  an 
equitable  adjustment  of  their  claims,  granted  pre-emption 
rights  to  "  squatters  "  on  unpatented  public  territory. 

With  the  opening  of  navigation,  re-enforcements  of  troops 
and  ships  of  war  arrived  from  England  and  Halifax,  and  all 
hope  of  successful  revolt  became  more  chimerical  than  ever. 
A  difiicult  question  was  how  to  deal  with  the  political  prisoners, 
with  whom  the  jails  were  crowded.  The  excited  state  of  pub- 
lic feeling  prevented  impartial  trial  by  jury.  The  murderers 
of  Weir  and  other  victims  of  the  rebellion  had  been  acquitted. 


TEE  REBELLION— LOWER   CANADA.  371 

notwithstanding  proof  positive  of  their  guilt.  An  amnesty- 
was,  therefore,  gi-anted  to  the  great  mass  of  the  prisoners, 
which  was  appropriately  proclaimed  on  the  day  appointed  for 
the  coronation  of  the  maiden  Queen, — June  the  fourteenth. 
Humanely  unwilling  to  appeal  to  the  arbitrament  of  a  court- 
martial,  the  Governor  banished  Wolfred  Nelson  and  eight  other 
leading  insurgents  to  Bermuda,  —  a  light  penalty  for  their 
crime,  —  and  forbade  Papineau  and  other  fugitive  rebels  to 
return  to  the  country,  under  pain  of  death. 

The  Imperial  parliament,  however,  annulled  the  ordinance  as 
ultra  vires,  but  indemnified  the  Governor  and  Council  from 
blame  for  their  unconstitutional  act.  The  proud  and  sensitive 
Earl  resigned  his  commission,  and  returned  to  England,  and 
Sir  John  Colborne  became  the  administrator  of  the  province. 
Lord  Durham's  health  was  utterly  broken,  and  two  years  later 
he  died.  His  Report  on  the  state  of  Canada  is  a  monument  of 
elaborate  and  impartial  research,  and  prepared  the  way  for  the 
union  of  the  provinces,  and  the  subsequent  prosperity  of  the 
country.  The  departure  of  the  Earl  of  Durham  was  the  signal 
for  fresh  outbreaks.  The  insurgents  stopped  the  mails,  cap- 
tured a  steamboat  at  Beauharnois,  and  cut  the  St.  John  railway. 
The  Habeas  Corpus  act  was  again  suspended,  and  the  troops, 
which  had  been  strongly  re-enforced  during  the  summer,  were 
distributed  through  the  disaffected  regions  to  protect  the  loyal 
inhabitants.  On  Sunday,  November  5,  the  rebels  made  an 
attack  on  the  Indian  village  of  Caughnawaga  for  the  purpose 
of  seizing  the  arms  and  stores  deposited  there.  The  Christian 
Indians,  rushing  out  of  the  church  in  which  they  were  assem- 
bled, raised  the  war-whoop,  and  captured  sixty-four  of  the 
attacking  party. 

Robert  Nelson,  a  brother  of  the  exiled  revolutionary  leader, 
had  crossed  the  frontier  with  a  large  body  of  rebel  refugees  and 
American  sympathizers,  and  proclaimed  a  Canadian  republic. 
"While  Sir  John  Colborne  was  advancing  with  troops  to  suppress 
the  outbreak,  on  the  9th  of  November  two  hundred  militia  at 
Odelltown,  posted  in  the  Methodist  church,  kept  at  bay  for  two 
hours  and  a  half  a  thousand  of  the  insurgents.    Ee-enforced  by 


372  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

a  hundred  men,  they  drove  them  over  the  border,  with  the  loss 
of  sixty  killed  and  as  many  wounded.  The  loyalists  lost  five 
killed  and  ten  wounded.  The  revolt  was  promptly  crushed, 
but  with  extreme  severity.  The  loyalists  retaliated  for  the 
ravages  and  pillaging  of  the  insurgents  by  devastating  with  fire 
the  disafiected  sections  of  the  country,  and  dragging  with 
violence  suspected  rebels  to  prison.  Barns  and  farmsteads  were 
given  to  the  flames,  and  their  blackened  ruins  for  years  bore 
witness  to  the  miseries  of  civil  war.  Twelve  of  the  leading 
insurgents,  after  a  fair  trial  by  a  court-martial,  specially 
constituted  at  Montreal,  were  executed,  and  several  others 
transported. 

The  rash  and  infatuated  outbreak  of  the  deluded  hdbitans 
was  the  cause  of  much  bloodshed  and  misery,  and  was  utterly 
unjustifiable  by  their  circumstances.  They  enjoyed  a  larger 
degree  of  liberty  than  did  their  race  in  any  other  country  in 
the  world,  and  every  possible  concession  of  the  Imperial  Gov- 
ernment to  their  requests  was  only  met  by  more  unreasonable 
demands.  The  duped  and  ignorant  people  were  lured  on  to 
destruction  by  restless  and  designing  demagogues,  who,  in  the 
hour  of  danger,  abandoned  them  to  their  fate,  seeking  selfish 
safety  in  flight.  Never  should  the  appeal  to  arms  be  made  till 
every  constitutional  means  of  escape  from  oppression,  —  which 
under  British  rule  these  men  had  never  known,  —  has  been 
exhausted. 


THE  REBELLION— UPPER   CANADA.  373 


CHAPTER  XXVm. 

THE  EEBELLION— UPPER  CANADA. 

Sir  Francis  Bond  Head,  Governor  of  Upper  Canada,  1836  —  Messrs.  Rolph, 
Baldwin,  and  Dunn,  called  to  the  Executive  Council  —  They  Fail  to  Secure 
Responsible  Government,  and  Resign  —  Governor  Head's  Loyal  Defiance  — 
Evokes  Outburst  of  Party  Enthusiasm  —  Mackenzie  Defeated  at  the  Polls  — 
He  Rushes  into  Rebellion  —  Lord  John  Russell's  "  Ten  Resolutions  "  refuse 
Elective  Council  —  Seditious  Gatherings,  1837  —  Rebel  Plans  —  Apathy  of 
the  Government  —  The  Rendezvous  at  Gallows  Hill  —  Death  of  Colonel 
Moodie  —  Intrigues  of  Dr.  Rolph  —  Night  Attack  of  the  Rebels  —  It  is  Re- 
pulsed —  Van  Egmond's  Exploit  —  Rebels  Rotated  at  Gallows  Hill  —  Loyal 
Enthusiasm  of  the  Militia  —  Duncombe's  Attempted  Rising  in  the  West  — 
Collapse  of  the  Rebellion. 

WE  now  proceed  to  trace  the  contemporary  events  in  the 
upper  province.  The  great  majority  of  the  liberal 
party  in  Upper  Canada  sought  reform  only  by  constitutional 
measures.  A  small  minority  were  betrayed  into  rebellion  by 
party  leaders,  stung  to  resentment  by  the  disappointment  of 
their  hope  of  radical  changes.  The  mass  of  the  population 
maintained  an  unshaken  loyalty,  and  the  revolt  was  suppressed 
almost  entirely  by  the  volunteer  militia,  without  the  aid  of 
Imperial  troops. 

The  agent  chosen  by  the  Home  Government  to  calm  the 
increasing  political  agitation  of  Upper  Canada  was  by  no  means 
well  adapted  for  that  purpose.  Sir  Francis  Bond  Head  was  a 
half-pay  Major  and  Poor-law  Commissioner,  known  to  fame 
chiefly  as  a  sprightly  writer  and  dashing  horseman,  who  had 
twice  crossed  the  pampas  of  South  America  from  Buenos  Ayres 
to  the  Andes.  His  military  training  and  somewhat  impulsive 
temperament  rather  unfitted  him  for  the  performance  of  the 
civil  duties  which  the  critical  relations  of  parties  in  the  province 
made  necessary.  He  confesses  in  his  narrative  of  his  admin- 
istration his  unacquaintance  with  the  vexed  questions  that 
agitated  Canadian  public  opinion.     "  As  I  was  no  more  con- 


374  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

nected  "with  human  politics,"  he  writes,  "  than  the  horses  that 
were  drawing  me  ;  as  I  never  had  joined  any  political  party ; 
had  never  attended  a  political  discussion  ;  had  never  even  voted 
at  an  election,  nor  taken  part  in  one,  it  was  with  no  little  sur- 
prise I  observed  the  walls  placarded  with  large  letters  which 
designated  me  as  Sir  Francis  Head,  a  tried  Reformer."  He 
soon  disappointed  whatever  anticipations  Ma':'kenzie  and  his 
friends  had  formed  of  his  policy. 

On  his  arrival  at  Toronto,  in  January,  1836,  Sir  Francis 
found  the  parliament  in  session,  and  was  almost  immediately 
involved  in  the  political  strife  that  agitated  the  colony.  Mac- 
kenzie, the  most  radical  and  extreme  of  the  Reform  party,  had 
been  elevated  by  the  persecution  of  the  Family  Compact  into 
the  position  of  a  popular  leader,  for  which  neither  his  talents 
nor  his  weight  of  character  adapted  him.  Moderate  Reformers, 
of  the  Robert  Baldwin  stamp,  were  left  behind  by  the  more 
violent  agitator  and  his  allies.  The  Reform  party  had  been 
led  to  expect  in  Sir  Francis  a  friend  to  their  principles.  He 
invited  three  of  its  members,  Messrs.  Rolph,  Baldwin,  and 
Dunn,  to  the  Executive  Council,  but  refused  to  recognize  the 
doctrine  of  its  responsibility  to  the  Legislative  Assembly,  for 
which  they  contended. 

Messrs.  Mackenzie  and  Bidwell  sought  an  early  interview  in 
order  to  urge  upon  him  their  radical  policy ;  but  Sir  Francis, 
unjustly  attributing  to  the  whole  Reform  party  their  extreme 
views,  threw  himself  into  the  arms  of  the  Family  Compact,  and 
adopted  those  principles  of  irresponsible  administration  against 
which  the  Reformers  had  been  so  long  contending.  The  Reform 
members  of  the  Council  resigned  their  places,  which  were  filled 
by  members  of  the  Conservative  party,  as  it  now  began  to  be 
called.  The  Assembly,  with  remarkable  unanimity,  censured 
the  re-actionary  policy  of  the  Government,  and,  for  the  first 
time,  exercised  its  constitutional  prerogative  of  refusing  to 
vote  the  supplies. 

Mr.  Bidwell,  the  Speaker  of  the  Assembly,  seriously  com- 
promised the  character  of  the  Reform  party  by  reading  in  the 
House  a  letter  from  Papineau,  urging  the  Reformers  of  the 


I 


THE  REBELLION—  UPPER   CANADA.  375 

upper  province  to  unite  with  the  anti-British  party  in  Lower 
Canada  in  demanding  the  redress  of  their  grievances.  In  dis- 
solving the  parliament,  Sir  Francis  denounced  the  letter  as 
seditious,  and,  alluding  to  a  covert  insinuation  that  the  people 
of  the  United  States  would  assist  a  republican  movement,  he 
exclaimed,  *'  In  the  name  of  every  militia  regiment  in  Upper 
Canada,  I  promulgate,  '  Let  them  come  if  they  dare  ! ' " 

Conceiving  that  the  very  principles  of  the  British  Constitu- 
tion were  at  stake,  he  threw  himself  actively  into  the  political 
contest.  By  published  addresses  and  pojDular  harangues,  he  so 
roused  the  loyal  enthusiasm  of  the  people  that  the  Reform 
party  was  badly  beaten  at  the  polls,  and  its  leaders  were 
excluded  from  parliament.  Mackenzie  is  said  to  have  wept 
tears  of  chagrin  and  mortification  at  his  defeat.  He  seems  now 
to  have  abandoned  all  hope  of  the  redress  of  political  griev- 
ances by  constitutional  means,  and  to  have  secretly  resolved  to 
have  recourse  to  violence  to  accomplish  his  purpose. 

A  despatch  from  the  Colonial  Office  instructed  the  Governor 
to  form  a  responsible  Executive  by  calling  to  his  Council  repre- 
sentatives who  possessed  the  confidence  of  the  people.  But, 
misled  by  the  apparent  success  of  his  policy,  he  declined  to 
make  these  concessions,  which  would  have  satisfied  all  moderate 
Ecformers.  *'I  earnestly  entreat  you,"  he  wrote  to  Lord 
Glenelg,  the  Colonial  Secretary,  **to  put  confidence  in  me, 
for  I  pledge  my  character  to  the  result.  I  have  overcome  every 
difficulty ;  the  game  is  won  ;  the  battle  is  gained  so  far  as 
relates  to  this  country.  I  would,  therefore,  request  your  lord- 
ship to  send  me  no  orders  on  the  subject,  but  allow  me  to  let 
the  thing  work  by  itself."  He  even  tendered  his  resignation 
rather  than  execute  the  instructions  sent.  The  Colonial  Office, 
therefore,  allowed  the  self-confident  Governor  to  carry  out  the 
policy  which  he  had  adopted.  Disappointed  in  their  anticipa- 
tions as  to  the  character  of  that  policy,  the  extreme  left  wing 
of  the  Reform  party,  composed  of  the  partisans  of  Mackenzie 
and  Bidwell,  became  more  and  more  exasperated  and  prepared 
for  the  subsequent  revolt. 

The  "  Ten  Resolutions  "  of  Lord  John  Russell,  founded  on 


376  BISTORT  OF  CANADA. 

the  report  of  Lord  Gosford's  commission,  denied  to  Upper  as 
i8S7.  -well  as  Lower  Canada  the  elective  Comicil  which  the 
democratic  party  in  both  provinces  regarded  as  a  necessary 
guarantee  of  popular  rights.  The  objection  urged  by  Lord 
John  and  the  English  liberals  to  this  concession  was  that  an 
appointed  legislative  Council  was  the  Canadian  analogue  of  the 
English  House  of  Lords,  and  was  a  necessary  check  to  crude 
legislation  by  the  Assembly.  If  the  Executive  Council  were 
made  responsible  to  the  people  like  our  present  ministries,  it 
was  also  urged,  the  prerogative  of  the  crown,  represented  by 
the  colonial  Governor,  would  be  reduced  to  a  cipher.  This 
jDolicy  of  repression  was  opposed  in  the  Upper  House  by  Lord 
Brougham,  and  the  dangers  against  which  it  was  supposed  to 
guard  have  been  shown,  by  the  immeasurable  superiority  of 
our  present  system  of  responsible  government,  to  have  been 
entirely  visionary. 

Mackenzie,  soured  and  disappointed,  now  joined  hands  with 
Papineau  in  the  desperate  scheme  of  revolt.  By  seditious 
articles  in  his  paper,  and  by  inflammatory  speeches  throughout 
the  couutry,  he  incited  his  partisans  to  insurrection.  Sir 
Erancis  Bond  Head,  with  a  chivalric  confidence  in  the  loyalty 
of  the  people,  allowed  Sir  John  Colborne  to  withdraw  all  the 
soldiers  from  Upper  Canada  to  repress  the  menaced  outbreak 
in  the  lower  province.  Even  the  offer  of  two  companies  as  a 
guard  of  the  city  and  armoury,  in  which  were  four  thousand 
stand  of  arms,  was  declined.  Emboldened  by  impunity  and  by 
the  removal  of  the  troops,  the  rebel  faction  armed  and  drilled 
with  assiduity.  The  hot-bed  of  sedition  was  in  the  Home  Dis- 
trict, chiefly  in  the  northern  part,  —  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Lloydtown,  and  at  places  along  Yonge  Street,  the  great  north- 
ern artery  of  the  country.  As  no  overt  act  could  be  proved 
against  Mackenzie,  the  Governor,  apparently  unaware  of  the 
imminence  of  the  danger,  made  no  efibrt  for  his  arrest  nor  for 
the  prevention  of  the  outbreak. 

]\Iackenzie  endeavoured  to  precipitate  the  crisis  by  producing 
a  run  on  the  banks,  advising  the  farmers  who  sympathized 
with  his  movement  to  demand  specie  for  their  bank-notes.     The 


THE  REBELLION— UPPER   CANADA,  377 

Government  loaned  £170,000  raised  by  the  issue  of  debentures 
to  sustain  the  credit  of  the  menaced  institutions.  The  Bank  of 
Upper  Canada  adopted  an  ingenious  device  to  defeat  the  run 
upon  its  specie  reserves.  It  kept  a  number  of  its  friends  at 
the  counter  presenting  notes  for  payment.  These  were  paid  in 
silver,  in  the  counting  of  which  a  considerable  delay  took  place. 
What  was  thus  paid  out  during  the  day  was  trundled  back  in  a 
wbcelbarrow  at  night,  and  paid  out  again  the  following  day.  * 

In  the  month  of  November,  Mackenzie,  Eolph,  Morrison, 
and  other  insurrectionary  leaders,  arranged,  at  a  secret  conclave 
at  Toronto,  the  plan  of  operations.  The  rebels  were  to  ren- 
dezvous, four  thousand  strong,  on  Yonge  Street,  near  Toronto, 
on  the  night  of  December  the  seventh.  They  were  then  to 
march  on  the  city,  seize  the  four  thousand  stand  of  arms 
deposited  at  the  City  Hall,  and  rally  their  sympathizers  among 
the  inhabitants.  The  Governor  and  his  advisers  being  cap- 
tured, a  popular  assembly  was  to  be  summoned,  and  a  republi- 
can constitution  submitted  for  adoption. 

The  Ecvs.  Egcrtoa  Ryerson  and  John  Lever,  two  loyal 
Methodist  ministers,  informed  Attorney-General  Hagerman  of 
the  seditious  gatherings  in  the  country,  of  which  they  had 
become  aware  in  their  pastoral  travels.  That  gentleman  replied 
that  he  did  not  believe  there  were  fifty  men  in  the  province 
who  would  join  in  an  attack  on  Toronto.  The  Government 
were  also  informed  that  quantities  of  pike-heads  and  pike- 
bandies  had  been  found  concealed  near  the  village  of  Markham. 
Still  the  Executive,  incredulous  of  danger,  disregarded  these 
admonitions  of  the  impending  rising.  It  seemed  as  if  they 
desired  to  lure  the  malcontents  into  rebellion.  Indeed,  Sir 
Francis  has  left  it  on  record,  that  *'  in  spite  of  remonstrances 
from  almost  every  district  in  the  province,"  he  allowed  Mac- 
kenzie * '  to  make  deliberate  preparation  for  revolt ;  —  to  write 
what  he  chose,  to  say  what  he  chose,  to  do  what  he  chose." 

Through  the  precipitance  of  Dr.  Eolph,  who  feared  that  the 
Government  had   detected   the  plot,  the  time  for  the  attack 

*  Life  and  Times  of  Mackenzie,  vol.  ii.,  p.  34. 
48 


378  HISTORY  OF  C AX  AD  A. 

tvas  cliangecl  from  the  7th  to  the  4th  of  December.  On  that 
date,  four  hundred  imperfectly  armed  insurgents  assembled  at 
Montgomery's  tavern,  four  miles  from  Toronto.  A  large  num- 
ber of  these  had  marched  many  miles  through  wretched  roads, 
and  were  dispirited  by  the  change  of  plan,  and  by  the  ill-success 
of  the  rebel  rising  in  Lower  Canada.  Mackenzie  was  intensely 
chagrined  at  the  precipitance  which  deprived  the  movement  of 
its  anticipated  strength.  With  characteristic  intrepidity,  how- 
ever, he  was  prepared  to  risk  everything  in  a  sudden  assault, 
which  would  probably  have  placed  the  city  in  his  power.  It 
was  decided,  however,  to  wait  for  re-enforcements.  Mac- 
kenzie, and  four  others,  advanced  toward  the  city  to  recon- 
noitre. They  met  and  captured  two  mounted  citizens,  Messrs. 
Powell  and  INIacdonald,  who  were  patrolling  the  road.  These, 
shooting  one  of  their  guards,  escaped  and  gave  the  alarm. 
Mackenzie  attempted  to  prevent  the  escape,  when  Alderman 
Powell  placed  the  muzzle  of  his  pistol  close  to  the  heart  of  his 
captor ;  but  a  flash  in  the  pan  saved  the  life  of  the  insurrec- 
tionary leader.  The  Governor  was  roused  from  sleep,  and  his 
family  placed  for  safety  on  a  steamboat  in  the  harbour.  The 
alarum-bells  rang  their  warning  through  the  night.  The  drums 
beat  to  arms,  and  the  ominous  sounds,  heard  m  the  rebel  camp, 
told  them  that  the  time  for  a  surprise  was  past.  Loyal  volun- 
teers, among  whom  were  the  five  Judges,  sprang  from  their 
beds,  and  hastened  to  guard  the  arms  in  the  City  Hall.  Guns 
were  distributed,  pickets  were  posted,  and  every  eifort  was 
made  to  guard  against  a  sudden  attack. 

Meanwhile,  a  tragical  occurrence  had  taken  place  at  Mont- 
gomery's tavern.  Colonel  Moodie,  a  retired  half-pay  officer, 
living  on  the  great  northern  road  leading  from  Toronto,  had 
seen  an  insurgent  detachment  proceeding  toward  the  city. 
Mounting  his  horse,  he  hastened  to  apprize  the  authorities  of 
the  rising.  At  the  rebel  rendezvous  he  was  stopped  by  a 
strong  guard.  Rashly  firing  his  pistol,  he  was  immediately 
shot  by  one  of  the  insurgents,  and  died  in  a  couple  of  hours. 
On  both  sides  blood  had  now  been  shed,  and  a  bitter  civil  strife 
seemed  pending. 


TEE  REBELLION— UPPER   CANADA.  379 

The  next  day  the  rebels  had  increased  to  eight  hundred,  but 
many  were  unarmed,  and  others  had  only  rude  pikes.  The 
Governor,  to  gain  time,  sent  Eobert  Baldwin  and  Dr.  Rolph, 
Tvho  bad  hitherto  concealed  his  treason,  with  a  flag  of  truce  to 
inquire  their  demands.  The  answer  was  "Independence;" 
and  a  written  answer  required  within  an  hour.  *  Dr.  Rolph,  it 
is  said,  secretly  advised  them  to  wait  till  dark,  and  promised 
them  the  aid  of  six  hundred  sympathizers  in  Toronto.  Mac- 
kenzie and  Lount  were  in  favour  of  an  immediate  attack,  but 
deferred  to  the  advice  which  they  received.  Under  cover  of 
night  they  approached  the  city,  but  were  fired  on  by  a  loyalist 
picket,  concealed  behind  a  fence,  and  one  of  their  number 
killed  and  two  wounded.  After  firing  a  volley,  the  front  rank 
of  the  rebels  fell  on  their  faces,  in  order  to  allow  the  rear  files 
to  discharge  their  pieces.  The  latter,  thinking  their  comrades 
all  killed  or  wounded,  turned  and  fled  headlong.  Mackenzie 
in  vain  attempted  to  rally  the  flying  mob.  They  refused  to 
renew  the  attack  by  night,  intimidated  by  the  perils  of  the 
ambush  into  which  they  had  fallen,  and  many  of  them  threw 
away  their  weapons, — the  evidences  of  their  crime,  —  and 
hastened  to  seek  safety  at  their  homes. 

Although  during  the  night  re-enforcements  arrived,  on  the 
following  day  Mackenzie  could  muster  only  five  hundred  men. 
Dr.  Eolph,  and  others  implicated  in  the  revolt,  now  that  defeat 
seemed  imminent,  fled  to  the  United  States.  The  loyal  militia 
throughout  the  country,  clad  in  frieze,  and  armed  with  old  flint- 
locks, pikes,  and  even  pitchforks,  hastened  to  the  capital  for  its 
defence.  Colonel  McNab,  at  Hamilton,  on  hearing  of  the  revolt, 
seized  a  steamboat  lying  at  the  wharf,  and  in  three  hours  it 
was  under  way,  crowded  with  the  gallant  men  of  Gore. 

*  The  above  is  the  statement  in  Mackenzie's  own  account,  -written  at  Nary 
Island,  January  14,  1838.  But  Sir  Francis  Hincks,  in  a  letter  to  the  present 
■writer,  says :  "  I  have  a  vivid  recollection  of  hearing  at  the  time,  Mr.  Bald- 
win's account  of  his  mission  to  the  rebels.  There  was  no  demand  for  '  Inde- 
pendence,' but  simply  a  demand  for  the  credentials  of  the  bearers  of  the  flag 
of  truce.  .  .  .  Dr.  Rolph  was  an  unwilling  delegate.  Mr.  Baldwin  was 
applied  to  by  the  Sheriff.  Mr.  EidweU  was  applied  to  and  refused,  and  then 
application  was  made  to  Dr.  Eolph,  who  left  town  next  day." 


380  EISTORT  OF  CANADA. 

Van  Egmond,  who  had  been  a  colonel  in  the  French  army 
during  the  wars  of  Napoleon,  now  took  military  command  of 
the  rebels.  In  order  to  divert  an  attack  from  the  main  body 
on  Yonge  Street,  he  made  a  demonstration  on  the  east  side  of 
the  city.  On  the  morning  of  the  seventh,  with  sixty  men,  he 
fired  the  bridge  across  the  Don  Eiver,  and  captured  the  Mon- 
treal mail.  The  outgoing  western  mail  had  previously  been 
intercepted  with  a  view  of  isolating  the  city,  and  preventing 
intelligence  of  the  outbreak  reaching  the  loyal  population  of 
the  country.  Large  rebel  re-enforcements  were  also  expected 
on  this  day,  which  was  the  one  first  decided  on  for  the  attack ; 
but  the  disasters  already  encountered  prevented  a  general 
rising,  and  the  loyal  population  had  already  rallied  in  large 
numbers  for  the  defence  of  the  capital.  About  noon  on 
Thursday,  therefore,  Colonel  McNab,  with  nine  hundred  men 
and  two  field-pieces,  advanced  against  the  rebels,  who,  to  the 
number  of  four  hundred,  were  posted  in  partial  cover  of  a 
wood  at  Montgomery's  tavern,  or  Gallows  Hill,  as  it  was 
called.  The  insurgent  leaders  were  still  discussing  their  plans, 
when  the  military  music  of  the  advancing  loyalists  was  heard. 
Mackenzie  asked  the  few  hundred  men  who  still  clung  to  his 
desperate  fortunes,  if  they  were  willmg  to  encounter  a  greatly 
superior  force.  They  responded  that  they  were.  "  And  never," 
wrote  their  ill-starred  leader,  "  did  men  fight  more  coura- 
geously. In  the  face  of  a  heavy  fire,  with  broadside  following 
broadside  of  musketry  in  steady  and  rapid  succession,  they 
stood  their  ground  firmly,  but  were  at  length  compelled  to 
retreat."  The  loyalists  opened  a  sharp  fire  of  musketry  and 
artillery,  and  then  charged  with  the  bayonet.  After  a  short 
resistance  the  insurgents  fled,  leaving  behind  thirty-six  killed 
and  fourteen  wounded.  Of  the  loyalists,  only  three  were 
wounded.  The  tavern  and  the  house  of  Gibson,  one  of  the 
insurgent  leaders,  were  given  to  the  flames.  Mackenzie,  an 
outlawed  fugitive,  with  a  reward  of  £1,000  on  his  head,  fled 
through  the  wintry  woods,  around  the  head  of  the  lake  to  the 
Niagara  frontier.  He  forded  ice-cold  streams,  and  hid  in  hay- 
ricks and  in  the  forest,  while  his  pursuers  were  beating  the  coun- 


THE  REBELLION—  UPPER   CANADA.  381 

try  on  every  side.  He  was  befriended,  sheltered,  and  guided  by 
numerous  symijathizcrs,  notwithstanding  the  penalty  for  aiding, 
and  the  reward  for  betraying  him.  At  length,  after  many  hair- 
breadth escapes,  he  succeeded  in  crossing  the  Niagara  Eiver,  at 
Navy  Island,  to  the  United  States.  In  a  week  the  rebellion 
was  crushed,  and  the  muster  of  ten  thousand  gallant  militia- 
men,—  Eeformers  and  Conservatives  alike, — who  had  rallied 
amid  frost  and  snow,  for  the  defence  of  the  Government,  de- 
monstrated the  unshaken  loyalty  of  the  people  to  the  British 
crown. 

Shortly  after,  an  attempted  rising  in  the  London  district, 
imder  Dr.  Duncombe,  a  political  disciple  of  Mackenzie,  was 
promptly  suppressed  by  the  loyal  militia,  under  Colonel 
McNab,  and  the  leader  fled  over  the  border. 


382  HISTORY  OF  CAXADA. 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 

THE   "PATRIOT"  WAE,   1837-38. 

The  American  "Hnnters'  Lodges"  Organized  —  Border  Euffians  seize  Navy 
Island  —  Mackenzie  proclaims  "  The  Eepublio  of  Upper  Canada "  — 
Destruction  of  the  "  Caroline  "  —  International  Complicationa  —  "  Patriot" 
Attack  on  Amherstbnrg  Repulsed  —  "  Bill  Johnston  "  at  Hickory  Island  — 
Detroit  Invasion  Repulsed  —  Attack  on  Point  Fel6  Repulsed  —  Sir  Francis 
Bond  Head  Re-called  —  Succeeded  by  Sir  George  Arthur,  1838  —  A  Coercive 
Policy  —  Executions  and  Transportations  —  Ravages  of  "  Bill  Johnston  " 
and  Border  Ruffians  —  Battle  of  Windmill  Point  —  The  Rebels  Routed  and 
Leaders  Hanged  —  Attack  on  Windsor  —  The  "  Patriots  "  Repulsed  — 
Ignominious  Close  of  a  Banditti  War  —  After-Career  of  Mackenzie. 

THE  rebel  leaders  ought  now  to  have  seen  the  hopelessness 
of  their  revolt.  Their  subsequent  military  organization 
and  wanton  invasion  of  the  province  were  utterly  without 
palliation  or  excuse.  The  American  Government  was  guilty  of 
grave  dereliction  of  duty  in  permitting  its  frontier  to  be  made 
a  base  of  hostile  operations  against  an  unoffending  neighbour. 
Secret  societies,  known  as  "  Hunters'  Lodges,"  were  organized 
in  many  of  the  American  border  toAvns  for  the  purpose  of  aiding 
the  Canadian  rebellion.  Among  their  members  were  a  number 
of  Canadian  refugees,  but  the  greater  part  were  American 
citizens.  Mackenzie,  Eolph,  and  other  insurgent  leaders, 
organized  an  "  Executive  Committee  "  at  Buffalo,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  directing  the  invasion  of  Upper  Canada.  The  large 
floating  population  of  sailors,  canal  boatmen,  and  dock  labour- 
ers, who  thronged  this  important  port,  rendered  it  easy  to 
procure  recruits  for  the  rash  entei-prise.  In  retaliation  for  the 
reward  offered  for  his  apprehension,  Mackenzie  promised  a  coun- 
ter-reward of  £500  for  the  capture  of  Sir  Francis  Bond  Head. 
He  also  offered  generous  prizes  of  land  and  a  money  bounty  to 
all  volunteers  for  the  "  Grand  Army  of  Liberation." 

On  the  13th  of  December,  a  mob,  described  by  a  Buffalo 
paper  as  a  "wretched  rabble,  ready  to  cut  any  man's  throat 


THE  PATRIOT  WAR,   1837-33.  333 

for  a  dollar,"  under  the  command  of  an  adventurer  named  Van 
Ecnsselaer,  took  possession  of  Navy  Island,  about  two  miles 
above  the  Falls  of  Niagara.  PIcre  Mackenzie  proclaimed  the 
"  Eepublic  of  Upper  Canada,"  invited  recruits,  and  issued  a 
paper  currency,  redeemable  on  the  establishment  of  the  new 
republic.  Few  Canadians  joined  his  standard,  but  about  a 
thousand  American  border  ruffians,  intent  on  plunder,  collected 
together.  They  were  supplied  with  artillery  and  stores  taken 
from  the  United  States  arsenal,  or  contributed  by  American 
citizens.  They  threw  up  entrenchments  of  logs,  mounting 
thirteen  guns,  and  opened  fire  on  the  Canadian  shore. 

Colonel  McNab,  appointed  to  the  military  command  of  the 
frontier,  soon  found  himself  at  the  head  of  twenty-five  hundred 
men  —  militia,  Grand  Eivcr  Indians,  and  a  company  of  coloured 
volunteers.  An  American  steamer,  the  *'  Caroline,"  was 
engaged  in  transporting  men  and  stores  to  Navy  Island. 
Colonel  McNab,  after  remonstrance  with  the  American  authori- 
ties, resolved  on  her  capture.  On  the  night  of  December  the 
28th,  Lieutenant  Drew,  of  the  Royal  Navy,  with  a  boat-party, 
gallantly  cut  her  out  from  under  the  guns  of  Fort  Schlosser. 
Unable,  from  the  strength  of  the  current,  to  tow  her  across  the 
river,  he  ordered  her  to  bo  fired  and  abandoned  in  the  rapids. 
She  glided  swiftly  down  the  stream,  and  swept  grandly  over  the 
cataract.  In  this  affair,  five  of  the  "  patriots  "  were  killed  and 
several  wounded.  The  capture  of  the  *'  Caroline  '*  was 
strongly  denounced  by  the  United  States  authorities,  and  it 
seemed  for  a  time  as  if  it  would  embroil  the  two  nations  in  war. 
It  was  certainly  extenuated,  however,  by  the  strong  provocation 
received,  and  was  subsequently  apologized  for  by  the  British 
Government.  The  winter  proved  exceedingly  mild.  Naviga- 
tion continued  open  till  the  middle  of  January.  Sir  John 
Colborne  re-enforced  the  Upper  Canadian  frontier,  and  isss. 
the  heavy  artillery  fire  from  Chippewa  compelled  the  evacuation 
of  Navy  Island,  January  14. 

Early  in  January,  a  force  of  several  hundred  men,  from 
Cleveland  and  Detroit,  well  equipped  with  muskets  and  artillery, 
taken,  with  the  connivance  of  the  authorities,  from  the  United 


384  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

States  arsenals,  made  a  demonstration  against  Sandwich  and 
Amherstburg.  They  rendezvoused  at  Bois  Blanc  Island,  and 
their  commander  issued  a  gasconading  proclamation,  calling  on 
the  Canadians  to  rally  around  the  standard  of  liberty,  and  free 
themselves  from  the  British  parasites  who  were  consuming  their 
substance.  The  loyal  militia  showed  their  appreciation  of  this 
gi-atuitous  advice  by  spontaneously  gathering,  to  the  number  of 
three  hundred,  armed  with  rifles,  fowling-pieces,  and  pitchforks, 
for  the  protection  of  the  frontier.  Two  schooners  of  the 
invading  flotilla,  laden  with  arms,  which  were  openly  shipped 
at  Detroit,  amid  demonstrations  of  sympathy  of  the  inhabi- 
tants, opened  fire  with  round  shot  and  grape  upon  the  peaceful 
town  of  Amherstburg. 

The  Canadian  militia,  though  without  artillery,  kept  up  a 
vigorous  fire  of  musketry  upon  the  attacking  vessels.  Soon 
one  of  them  struck  her  colours.  Shortly  after,  the  sails  and 
cordage  of  the  other  were  so  cut  up  by  the  steady  fire  of  the 
militia,  that  she  drifted  helplessly  ashore.  The  gallant  militia 
plunged  into  the  water,  and,  notwithstanding  the  stout  resist- 
ance of  the  crew,  boarded  and  captured  her,  together  with 
twenty-one  prisoners,  three  hundred  stand  of  arms,  three  pieces 
of  cannon,  and  a  large  quantity  of  ammunition.  Thus  was  this 
insolent  piratical  expedition  defeated,  with  a  loss  to  the  assail- 
ants of  five  men  killed  and  a  large  number  wounded.  The 
captured  cannon  were  mounted  on  the  crumbling  redoubts  of 
Tort  Maiden.  Soon  the  militia,  to  the  number  of  nearly  four 
thousand,  rallied  for  the  defence  of  the  frontier,  and  were 
posted  along  the  exposed  positions  of  the  Detroit  Eiver. 

Although  the  loyalty  of  the  Canadians  had  been  so  amply 
demonstrated,  yet  the  rebel  refugees  and  border  ruffians  con- 
tinued their  wanton  outrages  all  along  the  frontier.  In  utter 
defiance  of  international  comity,  simultaneous  attacks  on  Canada 
were  organLzIed  at  Detroit,  Sandusky,  Watertown,  and  in  Ver- 
mont. The  last  has  already  been  described  in  the  account  of 
the  Lower  Canada  rebellion.  The  Watertown  expedition, 
under  Van  Rensselaer  and  "Bill  Johnston,"  two  notorious 
scoundrels,  rendezvoused,  to  the  number  of  some  two  thou- 


THE  PATRIOT   WAR,  1837-38.  385 

sand,  on  the  24th  of  February,  at  Hickory  Island,  a  short 
distance  below  Kingston.  The  jealousy  and  quarrels  of  the 
commanders,  and  the  vigilance  and  energy  of  the  Canadians, 
frustrated  the  designs  of  the  marauders. 

The  expedition  from  Detroit,  about  the  same  date,  was  re- 
pulsed by  a  vigorous  artillery  fire  from  the  Canada  shore,  and 
disarmed  by  the  American  authorities,  who,  at  length,  began  to 
repress  this  l^order  fillibustering. 

On  the  4th  of  March,  five  hundred  <' patriot  ruffians"  took 
possession  of  Point  PeM  Island,  on  Lake  Erie,  about  forty 
miles  from  Amherstburg  and  twenty  from  the  main-land.  A 
force  of  regulars  and  Canadian  militia  crossing  on  the  ice,  after 
a  severe  conflict,  dislodged  and  drove  them  to  the  American 
shore,  with  the  loss  of  thirteen  killed,  forty  wounded,  and 
several  prisoners.  Two  of  the  British  were  killed  and  twenty- 
eight  wounded. 

The  administration  of  Sir  Francis  Bond  Head  being  attended 
by  such  disastrous  circumstances,  he  was  re-called  by  the  Home 
Government.  He  was  at  once  an  object  of  admiration  and 
aversion  to  opposite  political  parties.  He  was  accused  of 
intensifying  grievances  when  he  might  have  redressed  them, 
and  of  trifling  with  the  rebellion  when  he  might  have  prevented 
it.  On  his  return  to  England,  he  published  a  narrative  of  the 
stormy  events  of  his  administration,  which,  by  his  friends,  was 
considered  an  exoneration,  and,  by  his  enemies,  an  aggravation 
of  his  acts.  He  subsequently  devoted  himself  to  literature,  in 
which  he  was  remarkably  successful,  and  died  in  the  year  1875, 
at  the  advanced  age  of  eighty-two. 

Sir  George  Arthur,  the  new  Governor,  adopted  the  coercive 
policy  of  his  predecessor.  He  was  promoted  to  the  Govern- 
ment of  Canada  from  that  of  the  penal  colony  of  Van  Diemen's 
Land.  He  ruled  with  a  firm  and  heavy  hand,  having  little 
s}Tiipathy  for  the  now-accepted  theory  of  responsible  govern- 
ment. The  jails  of  the  province  were  crowded  with  political 
prisoners,  for  whose  pardon  numerous  petitions  were  presented 
to  the  Governor.  His  reply  was  a  sharp  rebuke.  Keform,  he 
said,  had  been  the  cloak  of  their  crimes,  and  they  should  have 


386  BISTORT  OF  CANADA. 

an  impartial  trial  —  no  more.  Two  of  the  leaders,  Lount  and 
Matthews,  were  hanged  at  Toronto,  amid  the  regret  of  many 
loyal  subjects. 

Lord  Glenelg,  the  Colonial  Secretary,  now  humanely  and 
wisely  interposed  his  influence  to  prevent  the  needless  effusion 
of  blood.  Many  persons  condemned  to  death  had  their  sentence 
commuted  to  imprisonment  in  the  provincial  penitentiary,  or  to 
transportation  to  Van  Diemen's  Land,  and  the  less  culpable 
ones  were  released  on  giving  bonds  for  their  future  good  con- 
duct. Many,  however,  who  were  suspected  of  sympathy  with 
the  rebellion,  fled  from  the  country. 

The  American  "Hunters'  Lodges,"  which  numbered,  it  is 
said,  nearly  twelve  hundred,  w^th  a  membership  of  eighty  thou- 
sand, still  kept  up  the  hostile  agitation.  The  affair  of  the 
<'  Caroline,"  and  the  disputes  concerning  the  boundary  between 
New  Brunswick  and  Maine,  continued  to  menace  the  relations 
of  the  two  countries.  Sir  John  Colborne  had  all  the  frontier 
forts  repaired,  and  garrisoned  with  troops  sent  out  from  Eng- 
land, and  the  militia  were  f)ut  in  a  state  of  thorough  efficiency. 

During  the  summer,  several  raids  were  made  from  over  the 
border.  On  the  night  of  May  28,  the  notorious  "  Bill 
Johnston,"  with  half  a  hundred  fellow-ruffians,  in  alleged 
retaliation  for  the  burning  of  the  "  Caroline,"  captured  the 
steamer  '*  Sir  Eobert  Peel,"  at  ^Yelles  Island,  on  the  St.  Law- 
rence. The  passengers  were  driven  ashore  in  a  stormy  night, 
and  the  steamer,  one  of  the  finest  on  the  river,  was  pillaged 
and  set  on  fire.  Johnston  and  his  gang  eluded  pursuit  amid 
the  labyrinth  of  the  Thousand  Islands,  and,  on  the  7th  of  June, 
landed  on  Amherst  Island,  near  Kingston,  and  plundered  three 
farm-houses.  A  company  of  British  soldiers  and,  sailors  scoured 
the  Thousand  Islands,  and  dispersed  the  pirate  crew.  Other 
marauding  parties  crossed  the  Niagara  frontier  and  plundered 
the  inhabitants.  Thirty  of  them  were  driven  into  a  swamp  and 
captured,  and  their  leader  was  hanged.  Similar  bands  of 
ruffian  ' '  liberators  "  appeared  at  Goderich  and  in  the  London 
district,  but  were  repulsed  by  the  loyal  population. 

In  the  month  of  November,  another  attempt  was  made  at  a 


THE  PATRIOT  WAR,  1837-38.  387 

simultaneous  invasion  of  the  country  at  different  points  of  the 
frontier.  In  Lower  Canada,  as  we  have  seen,  Dr.  Robert 
Nelson  was  repulsed  with  heavy  loss  at  Odelltown  (November 
5).  On  the  10th  of  the  month,  a  body  of  "patriots"  em- 
barked at  Oswego  in  a  large  steamer  and  two  schooners.  Their 
object  was  to  obtain  possession  of  Fort  Wellington  at  Prescott. 
Sailing  down  the  St.  Lawrence,  they  were  gallantly  attacked  on 
Sunday,  the  11th,  by  the  *'  Experiment,"  a  small  two-gun 
British  steamer.  An  injury  to  her  guns  enabled  the  ruffians 
to  land  a  force  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  men,  under  Von 
Schultz,  a  Polish  refugee,  at  Windmill  Point,  beyond  the  range 
of  the  guns  of  Fort  Wellington.  The  windmill,  a  circular 
stone  building  of  immense  strength,  flanked  by  several  stone 
dwelling-houses,  offered  a  very  formidable  defence.  The  fol- 
lowing day,  the  invaders  were  re-enforced  from  Ogdensburg, 
just  across  the  river ;  but  they  were  completely  disappointed  in 
their  expectations  of  being  joined  by  disaffected  Canadians.  The 
loyal  militia  swarmed  in  from  the  surrounding  country  to  repel 
the  aggi'cssors. 

■  On  Tuesday  morning,  a  force  of  four  hundred  and  eighty 
men,  under  Colonel  Young  of  the  regular  army,  advanced  to 
disarm  the  invading  brigands.  Two  armed  steamers,  the  "  Vic- 
toria "  and  "  Cobourg,"  controlled  the  river,  and  prevented  the 
arrival  of  re-enforcements  or  the  escape  of  the  enemy.  Driven 
from  post  to  post  with  severe  loss,  the  invaders  took  shelter  in 
the  windmill  and  adjacent  buildings.  The  American  shore  was 
crowded  with  spectators,  who  loudly  cheered  every  supposed 
advantage  of  their  friends.  The  guns  of  the  steamers  proving 
powerless  against  the  thick  stone  walls,  the  besiegers  had  to 
await  the  arrival  of  artillery  from  Kingston.  Meanwhile,  the 
"patriots"  remained  for  three  days  ingloriously  hemmed  in, 
unable  to  escape.  On  the  16th,  a  body  of  regulars  and  Royal 
Artillery  arrived,  and  briskly  bombarded  the  invaders  in  their 
stronghold.  The  latter  soon  surrendered  at  discretion,  to  the 
number  of  one  hundred  and  thirty.  The  number  killed  was 
about  fifty,  but  many  of  the  dead  were  burned  in  the  buildings. 
The  loss  of  the  Canadians   was   thirteen  killed   and  a  large 


388  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

number  wounded.  Von  Schultz  and  nine  others  of  the  brigands 
were  subsequently  executed  at  Kingston  by  sentence  of  court- 
martial  ;  others  were  transported ;  but  most  of  them  were 
pardoned  and  released. 

An  attempt  in  the  west  to  capture  Amherstburg  ended  no 
less  disastrously  to  the  invaders.  On  the  4th  of  December,  a 
body  of  four  hundred  and  fifty  men  crossed  from  Detroit,  amid 
the  cheers  of  the  citizens,  took  possession  of  the  small  town  of 
Windsor,  burned  a  steamboat  at  the  wharf,  and  advanced  on 
Sandwich,  two  miles  distant.  On  their  march,  they  murdered, 
with  shocking  barbarity.  Dr.  Hume,  a  surgeon  of  the  regular 
army.  Colonel  Prince,  with  less  than  two  hundred  militia, 
attacked  and  routed  the  marauders,  with  the  loss  of  twenty-one 
of  their  number.  He  stained  his  victory,  however,  by  shoot- 
ing, without  trial,  four  men  who  were  taken  prisoners.  The 
"patriots"  hastily  fled,  some  across  the  river,  others  to  the 
woods,  where  many  were  afterwards  found  frozen  to  death. 
Three  of  the  prisoners,  after  ti-ial  by  court-martial,  were 
executed  at  London. 

Thus,  in  disaster  and  defeat,  ended  the  utterly  unwarrantable 
*'  patriot  war,"  waged,  for  the  most  part,  by  lawless  American 
banditti,  upon  a  population  loyal,  with  few  exceptions,  to  their 
native  or  adopted  country ;  and  even  when  desiring  a  reform  in 
its  institutions,  seeking  it  only  by  constitutional  means.  The 
interruption  of  peaceful  industry,  and  the  large  military 
expenditure  caused  by  these  wanton  invasions,  greatly  retarded 
the  prosperity  of  the  country  ;  and  the  criminal  abetting  of  the 
outrage  on  Canadian  territory  by  American  citizens  was  the 
cause  of  much  international  ill-feeling  and  bitterness. 

The  prime  mover  of  the  Upper  Canada  rebellion  suffered  in 
his  own  person  the  consequence  of  those  disasters  of  which  he 
was  so  largely  the  cause.  For  twelve  years  he  continued  an 
exile  from  his  adopted  country,  with  a  price  upon  his  life 
should  he  venture  to  return.  Euined  by  the  confiscation 
of  his  property,  he  earned,  with  difficulty,  a  precarious  liveli- 
hood for  his  family,  and  too  often  was  made  to  eat  the  bitter 
bread  of  poverty.     His  attempts  to  publish  a  paper  at  New 


THE  PATRIOT  WAR,  1837-38.  389 

York,  and  subsequently  at  Rochester,  were  signal  failures.  In 
the  latter  city,  he  was  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  breach  of 
the  neutrality  laws.  For  twelve  months  he  languished 
in  close  confinement  within  the  walls  of  Monroe  County  jail. 
From  the  jDoisonous  miasma  of  a  neighbouring  marsh,  he  con- 
tracted an  ague,  which  undermined  his  constitution  and  broke 
his  spirits.  His  aged  mother  died,  in  her  ninetieth  year,  while 
he  was  in  prison,  and  it  was  only  l)y  resorting  to  a  stratagem 
that  he  was  permitted  to  receive  her  parting  blessing.  He  was 
cited  to  attend,  as  witness,  a  trial,  which  was  gotten  up  for  the 
pui-pose,  and  which  was  held,  through  the  indulgence  of  the 
sherifi",  in  the  house  where  the  dying  woman  lay.  From  his 
prison  cell,  a  few  days  after,  her  truly  filial  son  beheld  her 
funeral.  On  his  release,  he  obtained  a  temporary  appointment 
in  the  New  York  Custom -House,  and  was  subsequently  con- 
nected for  some  time  with  the  New  York  "  Tribune."  An 
amnesty  for  his  treasonable  practices  having  been  granted,  he 
returned  to  Canada  (1850),  and,  as  we  shall  see,  entered 
again  into  political  life.  He  often  expressed  strong  regret  for 
his  ill-advised  revolt,  but  he  lived  to  see  most  of  the  reforms 
for  which  he  contended  carried  into  efiect. 


390  BISTORT  OF  CANADA. 


CHAPTER    XXX. 

THE    UNION    OF    THE    CANADAS. 

Beneficial  Effect  of  Lord  Durham's  Report  on  the  Condition  of  the  Canadas 
—  Public  Debt  and  Military  Strength  of  Upper  Canada — Hon.  Charles 
Poulett  Thompson,  Governor-General,  1839  —  He  Urges  the  Policy  of  the 
Home  Government  for  the  Union  of  the  Canadas  —  The  Union  Bill  passes 
Colonial  and  Imperial  Parliaments,  1840  —  Provisions  of  the  Union  Act  — 
Eesponsible  Government  Granted  —  Mr.  Thompson  is  Raised  to  the  Peerage 
as  Lord  Sydenham  of  Kent  and  Toronto  —  Solicitor-General  Draper's  Bill  to 
Settle  the  Clergy  Reserve  Question  Fails  to  do  so  —  Brock's  Monument  Blown 
up  —  Patriotic  Enthusiasm  —  McLeod's  Trial  Threatens  Rupture  of  Peace 
vrith  United  States. 

THE  report  of  Lord  Durham  on  the  state  of  the  Canadas 
exerted  an  important  influence  on  the  destiny  of  the 
country.  Its  wise  and  liberal  suggestions  greatly  tended  to 
the  pacification  of  public  feeling  in  the  colonies.  It  urged  the 
princiiDle  of  the  dependence  of  the  Executive  upon  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  people,  and  prepared  the  way  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  responsible  government.  "From  first  to  last," 
^Tote  Lord  Durham,  "  I  have  discerned  in  those  dissensions 
which  fill  the  parliamentary  history  of  Canada,  that  the  Assem- 
bly has  always  been  at  war  with  the  Council  relative  to  i3owers 
which  are  essential  to  be  possessed  by  the  latter,  through  the 
very  nature  of  representative  institutions."  The  report  pro- 
posed the  union  of  the  provinces  in  order  to  restore  the  balance 
of  power  between  the  French  and  English  races,  and  to  remove 
the  commercial  difficulties  between  Upper  and  Lower  Canada. 
In  anticipation  of  subsequent  political  events,  it  suggested  a 
legislative  union  of  all  the  colonies,  and  the  construction  of  an 
intercolonial  road  as  a  link  between  them.  Although  bitterly 
attacked  by  the  friends  of  the  irresponsible  colonial  Govern- 
ments, it  greatly  influenced  the  Home  authorities,  and  encour- 
aged the  advocates  of  constitutional  reform  in  the  colonies. 


THE   UNION   OF  THE   CAN  ADAS.  39 1 

Sir  John  Colbornc,  the  successor  of  Lord  Durham  as  Gov- 
ernor-General, had  effectually  suppressed  the  rebellion,  and 
left  the  province  in  an  efficient  state  of  defence.  On  his 
return  to  England,  in  1839,  he  Avas,  for  his  distinguished  ser- 
vices, raised  to  the  peerage,  with  the  title  of  Lord  Seaton.  The 
finances  of  Upper  Canada,  however,  were  considerably  em- 
barrassed, the  expenditure  of  1839  exceeding  by  £10,000  the 
income,  which  amounted  to  £80,000.  Owing  to  the  construc- 
tion of  the  Welland  Canal,  and  other  public  works,  including 
the  strengthening  of  the  defences  at  the  exposed  points  on  the 
frontier,  the  annual  interest  on  the  provincial  debt  amounted  to 
£63,000.  The  organized  militia  of  the  upper  province  con- 
sisted of  one  hundred  and  six  regiments  of  infantry,  with 
officers  and  staff  complete,  and  a  due  proportion  of  cavalry  and 
artillery.  With  a  population  of  four  hundred  and  fifty  thou- 
sand, she  could  muster  a  citizen  soldiery  of  forty  thousand 
men,  or  nearly  one-tenth  of  the  inhabitants.  With  the  present 
population  of  Upper  Canada  of  over  one  million  one  hundred 
and  sixty-two  thousand,  the  same  proportion  would  yield  a 
force  of  one  hundred  and  forty-four  thousand  enrolled  militia ; 
or  for  the  entire  Dominion,  with  a  i:)opulation, — according  to 
the  last  census,  —  of  over  three  and  a  half  million,  a  force 
available  for  defence  of  over  three  hundred  thousand  men.  If 
our  forefathers,  in  the  infancy  of  the  country,  with  undeveloped 
resources,  almost  without  roads,  and  with  a  scanty  population, 
were  able,  almost  unaided  by  Great  Britain,  to  successfully 
withstand  for  three  long  years  all  the  force  that  a  populous  and 
powerful  neighbouring  country  was  able  to  bring  to  bear,  our 
present  ability  to  resist  any  hostile  attacks  to  which  we  are 
likely  to  be  exposed  cannot  be  reasonably  doubted. 

Sir  John  Colborne  was  succeeded  as  Governor-General  by 
the  Hon.  Charles  Poulett  Thompson,  a  statesman  of  liberal 
opinions,  of  great  tact  and  judgment,  and,  as  President  of  the 
Board  of  Trade,  of  wide  financial  experience.  The  Home 
ministry  had  determined  on  the  union  of  the  two  Canadas,  and 
on  the  acknoAvledgment  in  the  ncAV  constitution  of  the  principle 
of  responsible  government.     There  was  a  considerable  section 


392  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

in  either  province  to  which  both  of  these  projects  were  obnox- 
ious. The  task  of  the  new  Governor,  therefore,  was  one 
requiring  the  exercise  of  consummate  skill  and  prudence.  In 
Lower  Canada,  it  will  be  remembered,  the  constitution  had 
been  suspended  on  account  of  the  rebellion,  and  a  Special 
Council  had  been  created  to  carry  on  the  government  of  the 
country,  in  the  place  of  the  Legislative  Assembly  and  Execu- 
tive Council  which  it  superseded.  The  consent  of  the  French- 
Canadian  party  to  a  measure  that  would  give  a  predominant 
influence  to  t'he  English-speaking  population  was  not  expected 
or  solicited.  That  of  the  Special  Council,  representing  the 
loyal  sentiment  of  the  country,  and  the  authority  of  the  crown, 
was  anticipated  for  the  union  scheme,  which  was  sustained  by 
all  the  influence  of  the  Home  Government.  One  serious  objec- 
tion was,  that  the  public  debt  of  Upper  Canada  would  be  largely 
shared  by  the  lower  province,  as  a  result  of  the  union.  The 
Special  Council,  however,  agreed  that  as  that  debt  had  been 
principally  contracted  for  improvement  of  internal  communica- 
tions, alike  beneficial  to  both  provinces,  it  would  be  just  and 
reasonable  that  such  part  as  had  been  thus  contracted  should  be 
chargeable  to  the  revenues  of  both  provinces.  The  ready 
assent  of  the  Council  was,  therefore,  given  to  the  union  scheme 
as  "  an  indispensable  and  urgent  necessity."  It  also  expressed 
by  a  formal  resolution  the  loyal  sentiment  that  the  adjustment 
and  settlement  of  the  terms  of  the  re-union  of  the  two  prov- 
inces might,  with  all  confidence,  be  submitted  to  the  Avisdom 
and  justice  of  the  Imperial  parliament.  A  good  deal  of 
popular  dissatisfaction  with  the  union  scheme  was,  however, 
manifested,  and  petitions  numerously  signed  by  the  French 
population  were  presented  against  it. 

In  Upper  Canada,  resolutions  in  favour  of  union  had  been 
passed  in  the  Legislative  Assembly,  but  rejected  by  the  Upper 
House.  Mr.  Thompson  had  much  difficulty  in  procuring  the 
assent  to  the  measure  of  that  body,  the  majority  of  whose 
members  clung  tenaciously  to  the  privileges  which  the  new 
constitution  would  cause  them  to  forfeit.  The  pointed  de- 
spatches of  Lord  John  Russell,  the  Colonial  Secretary,  express- 


TEE   UNION  OF  THE   CAN  ADAS,  393 

ing  Her  Majesty's  pleasure,  placed  the  opposition  to  the  union 
in  such  a  light,  that  the  hostile  majority  were  compelled  by 
their  profession  of  loyalty  to  the  crown  to  support  the  obnox- 
ious scheme.  The  union  bill  was,  therefore,  introduced  as  a 
Government  measure,  and,  after  prolonged  debate  on  its  several 
provisions,  obtained  a  majority  of  both  Houses.  The  action  of 
the  Imperial  parliament  was  yet  necessary  to  give  effect  to  the 
union.  A  draft  of  a  bill,  based  upon  the  resolutions  of  the 
legislatures  of  the  two  provinces,  was  drawn  up  by  Sir  James 
Stuart,  Chief  Justice  of  Lower  Canada,  and  submitted  to  the 
Home  Government.  This  passed  the  Imperial  parliament  with 
slight  modifications,  and  received  the  royal  assent,  July  23, 
1840.  Owing  to  a  suspending  clause,  it  did  not  take  effect  till 
the  10th  of  February,  1841,  when  it  was  declared  in  force  by 
proclamation. 

The  Act  of  Union  proviaed  that  there  should  be  one  Legis- 
lative Council  and  one  Legislative  Assembly,  in  which  each 
province  should  be  equally  reiDresented.  The  Legislative 
Council  must  be  composed  of  not  less  than  twenty  life-mem- 
bers, appointed  by  the  cro\\Ti.  The  Assembly  was  to  consist 
of  eighty-four  members,  elected  by  the  people.  An  Executive 
Council  was  to  be  formed,  of  eight  members,  any  of  whom  who 
held  seats  in  the  Assembly  must  go  back  to  the  people  for  re- 
election. The  Executive  Council,  like  a  constitutional  ministry, 
held  office  so  long  as  its  measures  could  command  a  majority  of 
votes  in  the  Legislative  Assembly.  A  permanent  civil  list  of 
£75,000,  annually,  was  established  in  lieu  of  all  territorial  and 
other  revenues  previously  held  by  the  crown.  The  public  debt 
of  the  two  provinces, — that  of  Upper  Canada  being  far  the 
greater, — was  made  a  charge  upon  the  consolidated  revenue. 
Previous  to  the  union,  private  members  were  allowed  to  intro- 
duce bills  involving  the  expenditure  of  public  moneys,  and 
thus,  from  the  lack  of  responsibility,  reckless  and  ill-considered 
expenditure  was  permitted.  By  the  Union  Act,  the  initiation 
of  such  bills  was  vested  in  the  Government,  which  must  bear 
the  responsibility  of  the  measure  ;  but  it  must  command  the 
support  of   a   majority  of  the   legislature.      Thus   the   great 

50 


394:  HISTORY  OF  CAXADA. 

object  of  years  of  contentioa  was  secured,  — the  control  by  the 
reiDrcsentatives  of  the  people  of  all  the  public  revenues.  The 
judiciary  were,  by  a  permanent  civil  list,  made  independent  of 
the  annual  votes  of  the  Assembly. 

In  token  of  appreciation  of  his  success  in  carrying  out  the 
Imperial  policy  of  union  of  the  Canadas,  the  Queen  was  pleased 
to  raise  Mr.  Thompson  to  the  peerage,  with  the  title  of  Lord 
Sydenham  of  Kent  and  Toronto.  During  the  summer  he  made 
an  extensive  tour  of  the  provinces,  to  familiarize  himself  with 
their  extent,  resources,  and  political  necessities.  He  was  every- 
where received  with  loyal  demonstrations,  and  by  his  distin- 
guished abilities  and  courtesy  of  manner,  won  golden  opinions 
even  where,  through  political  feeling,  he  had  previously  been 
unpopular. 

The  most  pressing  grievance  in  Upper  Canada,  after  the 
settlement  of  the  union  question,  was  that  of  the  clergy 
1840.  reserves.  A  bill  was,  therefore,  introduced  into  the 
legislature  of  that  province,  early  in  January,  by  Solicitor- 
General  Draper,  authorizing  the  sale  of  these  reserves,  one- 
half  of  the  proceeds, — after  the  indemnification  of  the  Anglican 
clergy,  to  whom  it  was  considered  that  the  faith  of  the  crown 
was  pledged, — to  be  given  to  the  dissenting  bodies,  and  the 
other  half  to  be  divided  between  the  Church  of  England  and 
the  Church  of  Scotland,  in  proportion  to  their  respective  num- 
bers. The  bill  passeH  the  Assembly  by  a  majority  of  eight, 
but  it  was  not  considered  satisfactory  by  the  Reform  party,  and 
the  question  continued  to  be  for  some  years  a  cause  of  frequent 
agitation. 

In  the  following  April,  a  dastardly  attempt  was  made  by 
some  unknown  ruffians  to  blow  up  with  gunpowder  the  monu- 
ment erected  by  a  grateful  country  to  the  memory  of  Sir  Isaac 
Brock,  on  the  scene  of  his  heroic  death.  An  enthusiastic 
meeting  of  five  thousand  Canadian  patriots  was  held  beneath 
the  shattered  column  on  the  30th  of  June,  at  which  Sir  George 
Arthur  presided.  A  munificent  sum  was  contributed  for  the 
erection  of  a  worthy  memorial ;  and,  after  many  delays,  the 
noble  monument  which  now  crowns  the   historic  Queenston 


THE   UNION  OF  THE   CAN  ADAS.  395 

Heights,  rose  to  perpetuate  the  name  and  fame  of  Canada's 
heroic  defender,  who,  for  her  sake,  had  laid  down  his  life. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  year,  a  person  of  the  name  of 
McLeod,  who  had  been  deputy  sheriif  of  the  Niagara  District, 
was  imprisoned  by  the  United  States  authorities  on  account  of 
his  alle<>:ed  share  in  the  destruction  of  the  "  Caroline  "  during: 
the  rebellion.  The  Home  Government  determined  to  protect 
his  rights  as  a  British  subject,  and  demanded  his  surrender. 
It  was  refused,  and  the  difficulty  threatened  for  a  time  to 
embroil  the  two  countries  in  war.  He  was,  however,  acquitted, 
although  by  a  court  which  had  no  jurisdiction,  and,  with  his 
release,  the  warlike  excitement  immediately  subsided. 


396  HISTORY  OF  CANADA, 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 

RESPONSIBLE  GOVERNMENT. 

Inauguration  of  New  Constitution  —  Kingston  'becomes  the  Seat  of  Govern- 
ment, 1841  —  "Double  Majority"  —  Municipal  System  —  Organisation  of 
Public  Works  —  Death  of  Lord  Sydenham  —  Sir  Charles  Bagot,  Governor- 
General,  1842  —  The  Baldwin-Hincks  Administration  —  Death  of  Sir  Charles 
Bagot  —  Sir  Charles  Metcalfe,  Governor-General,  1843  —  Constitutional  Strug- 
gle—  Resignation  of  Baldwin-Hincka  Government  and  Formation  of  the 
Draper  Ministry  —  Montreal  becomes  the  Seat  of  Government,  1844  —  Death 
of  Lord  Metcalfe  —  Earl  of  Cathcart,  Administrator  of  Government,  1845  — 
Rebellion  Losses  Agitation  in  Upper  and  Lower  Canada,  1846. 

"TTT"  ITH  the  formal  proclamation  of  the  union  of  the  two 

V  V  provinces,  February  10,  1841,  the  administration  of 
the  government  of  Upper  Canada  by  Sir  George  Arthur  ter- 
minated, and  Lord  Sydenham  assumed  the  vice-royalty  of  the 
united  provinces.  A  new  Executive  Council  was  appointed,* 
and  a  new  parliament  was  summoned.  The  elections  were 
attended  with  considerable  excitement,  which  was  all  the  greater 
on  account  of  the  imperfect  facilities  for  recording  the  votes. 
The  polling  places  were  few,  and  the  crowding  and  obstruction 
by  the  more  turbulent  members  of  the  opposite  political  parties 
seriously  interfered  with  the  free  exercise  of  the  franchise. 

When  the  legislature  assembled  in  the  city  of  IGngston, 
which  had  been  selected  as  the  new  seat  of  government,  it  was 
found  that  parties  were  very  evenly  balanced.  The  Eeformers, 
however,  were  able  to  elect  as  Speaker,  M.  Ciivillier,  a  Lower- 
Canadian  member  of  their  party.  The  French  members,  num- 
bering twenty-four  in  all,  held  the  balance  of  power,  and  were 
able  for  a  long  series  of  years,  by  their  compact  vote,  to  turn 
the  scale  in  favour  of  whichever  party  could  best  promote  French 
interests. 

*  It  was  composed  of  Messrs.  SuUivan  (President),  Dunn,  Daly,  Harrison, 
Killaly,  Ogden,  Draper,  Baldwin,  and  Day,  who  all  held  public  offices  apart 
from  their  position  as  councillors. 


RESPONSIBLE  GOVERNMENT. 


397 


It  was  to  counteract  this  dominant  influence  that  the  principle 
of  '*  double  majority"  as  it  was  called,  was  introduced.     This 


m 


required  not  merely  a  majority  of  the  whole  House  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  Government,  but  also  a  majority  of  the  representa- 


898  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

tivcs  of  each  j^rovince  separately.  The  application  of  this 
principle,  while  often  a  safeguard  against  sectional  domination, 
frequently  led  to  sectional  jealousy,  and  sometimes  to  the 
retarding  of  needful  legislation. 

The  consummation  of  the  union  did  not,  however  introduce 
a  political  millennium  nor  jDut  an  end  to  party  strife.  The  irri- 
tation produced  by  recent  conflicts  attending  the  constitutional 
crisis  through  which  the  country  had  passed,  still  lingered  in 
many  minds.  It  required  all  the  tact  and  sagacity  of  Lord 
Sydenham  to  reconcile  party  difierences  and  to  prevent  friction 
in  the  operation  of  the  new  machinery  of  government.  Mr. 
Baldwin  found  himself  unable  to  co-operate  with  some  of  the 
members  of  the  new  Council.  He  therefore  resigned  ofllce, 
which,  indeed,  he  had  only  accepted  provisionally,  and  had  held 
for  a  time  from  an  unwillingness  to  create  embarrassment  to 
the  Governor  by  any  premature  action. 

The  new  parliament  gave  effect  to  several  important  meas- 
ures. The  Welland  Canal,  which  had  been  carried  on  as  a 
private  joint-stock  enterprise,  was  formally  assumed  by  the 
Government.  The  municipal  system  was  organized  in  general 
accordance  with  its  present  excellent  constitution.  The  Muni- 
cipal Act*  provided  that  from  the  1st  of  January,  1842,  muni- 
cipal authorities  should  be  established  in  the  several  districts 
of  Upper  Canada,  and  should  be  "capable  in  law  of  pur- 
chasing and  holding  lands,  and  of  making  such  contracts  and 
agreements  as  may  be  necessary  for  the  exercise  of  their  cor- 
porate functions." 

The  administration  of  local  affairs  was  thus  transferred  from 
the  Quarter  Sessions  to  town  and  county  councils,  elected  by 
popular  vote.  The  people  obtained  the  direct  control  of  the 
local  assessment  and  expenditure  for  the  construction  of  roads 
and  bridges,  erection  of  jails  and  court-houses,  and  the  like  — 


*  Cited  as  4  and  5  Victoria,  Cap.  x.  Amended  and  consolidated  by  12  Vic- 
toria, Cap.  81. 

By  the  Municipal  Loan  Fund  Act  of  1852,  to  be  hereafter  referred  to,  the 
facilities  for  raising  moneys  for  local  improvements,  railway  and  other  purposes, 
were  still  further  increased. 


RESPONSIBLE  GOVERNMENT.  399 

as  effectual  a  guarantee  as  can  be  found  of  economy  and  effi- 
ciency of  municipal  administration.  The  establishment  of 
municipal  institutions  had  been  recommended  in  Lord  Dur- 
ham's Keport,  but  had  not  been  included  in  the  constitution 
adopted  at  the  union.  The  question  was  taken  up  and  carried 
through  in  the  first  parliament  after  that  event.  The  extreme 
Conservatives  regarded  the  bill  as  tending  too  much  to  democ- 
racy. The  extreme  Reformers  demanded  still  further  conces- 
sions to  popular  influence.  By  the  votes  of  moderate  men  of 
both  sides,  however,  this  admirable  piece  of  legislation,  which 
has  contributed  greatly  to  the  prosperity  of  the  country,  was 
carried  into  efiect.  The  public  works  of  the  united  provinces 
were  also  placed  under  the  administration  of  a  government 
department,  at  whose  head  was  a  responsible  minister  of  the 
crown.  The  extensive  works  in  progress  were  stimulated  to 
completion  by  a  loan  of  £1,500,000,  guaranteed  by  the  Impe- 
rial Govermnent.  Provision  was  also  made  by  this  parliament 
for  postal,  customs,  fiscal,  and  educational  progress  and  reform. 
Lord  Sydenham  exhibited  his  political  wisdom  by  endeavouring, 
although  not  always  with  success,  to  remove  the  traces  of  the 
recent  dissensions.  The  old  members  of  the  Legislative  Coun- 
cil did  not  readily  blend  with  those  who  had  been  newly 
appointed  :  some  delayed  to  be  sworn  in,  and  some  declined  to 
sit  at  all. 

But  this  distinguished  benefactor  of  Canada  was  not  permitted 
to  witness  the  full  result  of  his  labours,  nor  the  triumph  of  that 
system  of  responsible  government  which  he  had  assisted  in 
introducing.  While  out  riding,  the  fall  of  his  horse  fractured 
his  leg.  His  constitution,  never  robust,  and  now  undermined 
by  his  zeal  in  the  discharge  of  public  duty,  was  unable  to  with- 
stand the  shock.  After  lingering  in  great  pain  a  few  days,  he 
sank  beneath  his  injuries,  September  19,  1841,  in  the  forty- 
second  year  of  his  age.  He  was  buried,  by  his  own  request, 
in  the  land  to  whose  welfare  he  devoted  the  last  energies  of  his 
life.  No  columned  monument  perpetuates  his  memory ;  but 
the  constitutional  privileges  which  we  to-day  enjoy,  and  the 
peace  and  prosperity  which  resulted  from  the  union  of  the 


400  BISTORT  OF  CANADA. 

Canadas,  which  he  laboured  so  strenuously  to  bring  about,  con- 
stitute an  imperishable  claim  upon  our  esteem  and  gratitude. 

By  the  dying  request  of  Lord  Sydenham,  Major-General 
Clitheroe  prorogued  the  parliament,  and  Sir  Richard  Jackson, 
the  commander  of  Her  Majesty's  forces,  administered  the  gov- 
ernment till  the  appointment  of  his  successor.  The  Conserva- 
tive ministry  of  Sir  Robert  Peel  had  succeeded  the  Melbourne 
administration.  The  new  Governor-General,  Sir  Charles  Bagot, 
who  arrived  January  10,  1842,  represented  the  opposite  school 
of  politics  to  that  of  his  predecessor.  The  opponents  of  the 
new  constitution  anticipated  a  probable  return  to  the  old  regime 
of  irresponsible  government.  Lord  Stanley,  the  new  colonial 
minister,  however,  followed  up  the  policy  inaugurated  by  Lord 
John  Russell ;  and  Sir  Charles  Bagot  impartially  carried  out 
his  instructions.  He  recognised  the  important  constitutional 
principle  that  the  parliamentary 
f^  '  "  "W\^  majority  should    control    the    ad- 

ministration. 

In  accordance  with  this  theory, 
certain  changes  of  ministry  took 
place.  Mr.  Baldwin  received  the 
Attorney-Generalship  for  Canada 
"West,  in  place  of  Mr.  Draper, 
resigned.  Mr.  Sherwood  gave 
place  to  Mr.  Small,  as  Solicitor- 
General.  Mr.  Lafontaine  *  became 
SIR  L.  H.  LAFONTAINE.  Attomey-Gcneral  for  Canada  East ; 

and  Mr.  Morin,  Commissioner  of  Crown  Lands.     Mr.  Hincks 

*  Louis  Hjrpolite  Lafontaine  was  bom  at  Boucherville,  in  LoTver  Canada,  in 
the  year  1807.  His  grandfather  was  a  member  of  parliament  in  that  province 
from.  1796  to  1804.  The  grandson  early  achieved  distinction  at  the  bar.  In 
politics  he  was  first  the  follower  and  then  the  rival  of  Papineau.  Durmg  the 
troubles  of  1837  they  both  fled  from  warrants  of  high  treason.  M.  Lafontaine 
Boon  returned,  as  he  had  committed  no  overt  act  beyond  writing  an  ironical 
letter  which  had  been  interpreted  literally.  He  soon  became  a  leader  of  the 
Eeform  Party  in  Lower  Canada,  and,  as  we  shall  see,  played  a  prominent  part 
in  political  life.  In  1853  he  was  elevated  to  the  Chief  Justiceship  of  the  Court 
of  Queen's  Bench  in  Lower  Canada;  and  the  following  year  was  created,  for 
public  services,  a  baronet  of  the  United  Kuigdom. 


RESPOXSIBLE  GOVERNMENT.  401 

had  previously  joined  the  Government,  as  Inspector-General  of 
Public  Accounts.  The  new  ministers  adopted  the  wholesome 
English  precedent  of  returning  to  their  constituencies  for  re- 
election on  the  assumption  of  office.  In  a  House  of  eighty- 
four  members  they  commanded  a  majority  of  thirty-six. 

Mr.  Ilincks,  the  Inspector-Gen- 
eral, was  a  man  of  distinguished 
ability  and  energy.  His  father  was 
a  minister  of  the  Irish  Presby- 
terian Church,  of  great  worth  and 
learning.  An  elder  brother  for 
many  years  ably  occupied  a  profes- 
sorial chair  in  the  University  of 
Cork,  and  subsequently  in  the  To- 
ronto University.  Francis  Hincks, 
the  youngest  son,  was  educated  to 
mercantile   life.     He   came  to  To-  sir  francis  hincks. 

ronto  in  1832,  and  became  cashier  of  a  new  banking  institu- 
tion. 

In  1835,  his  financial  ability  was  recognized  by  his  appoint- 
ment to  investigate  the  affairs  of  the  Welland  Canal  Company, 
which  were  involved  in  much  confusion.  In  1838,  he  estab- 
lished the  "  Examiner"  newspaper,  in  the  Eeform  interest,  and 
achieved  marked  success  as  a  journalist.  He  was  subsequently 
returned  to  parliament  as  a  representative  of  the  county  of 
Oxford.  On  his  acceptance  of  office,  he  was  re-elected  by  a 
largely  increased  majority.  He  was  destined,  as  we  shall  see, 
to  play  a  prominent  part  in  Canadian  politics. 

The  second  session  of  the  first  union  parliament  lasted  only 
six  weeks,  but  it  passed  through  their  several  stages  no  less 
than  thirty  Acts.  Liberal  votes  of  supply  received  the  assent 
of  the  Assembly,  which  asserted  the  constitutional  principle 
that  a  detailed  account  of  their  expenditure  should  be  sub- 
mitted to  parliament  within  fourteen  days  of  the  opening  of 
the  following  session. 

Sir  Charles  Bagot,  like  his  predecessor,  was  not  long  per- 
mitted to  discharge  his  official   duties,  nor  to  return  to  his 

51 


402  BISTORT  OF  CANADA. 

native  land.  A  serious  illness  compelled  him  to  request  his 
recall,  but,  before  it  was  granted,  he  became  unable  to  leave 
the  country.  He  died  at  Kingston,  greatly  regretted,  sixteen 
months  after  his  arrival,  May  19,  1843. 

Sir  Charles  Theophilus  Metcalfe,  the  new  Governor-General 
of  Canada,  had  risen,  by  the  sheer  force  of  his  energy  and 
talent,  from  the  position  of  a  writer  in  the  East  India  civil  ser- 
vice to  that  of  Acting  Governor-General  of  India.  This  post 
he  held  for  two  years  (1834-36),  and,  afterwards,  for  three 
3'ears  (1839-42),  that  of  Governor  of  Jamaica.  His  adminis- 
trative experience  in  these  countries,  where  the  prerogatives  of 
the  crown  were  unquestioned,  was  no  special  qualification  for 
the  constitutional  government  of  a  free  country  like  Canada. 
The  right  of  jDatronage,  and  of  appointment  to  office,  lie  con- 
ceived was  vested  in  himself  as  representative  of  the  crown, 
for  the  exercise  of  which  he  considered  himself  responsible 
only  to  the  Imperial  parliament. 

This  principle  was  incompatible  with  the  colonial  theory  of 
responsible  government ;  and  the  appointment  of  certain  mem- 
bers of  the  Conservative  party  to  official  position,  without  the 
advice  or  consent  of  his  ministers,  was  the  ground  of  grave 
dissatisfaction.  Messrs.  Baldwin  and  Lafontaine  protested 
against  what  they  considered  an  unconstitutional  proceeding. 
They  were  held  responsible  by  the  Assembly  for  the  acts  of 
the  Government,  and  had  entered  the  ministry  with  the  resolve 
to  hold  office  only  while  they  could  command  a  parliamentary 
majority.  Sir  Charles  declined  to  degrade  what  he  considered 
the  prerogative  of  the  crown,  or  to  give  up  his  right  of  patron- 
age. Messrs.  Baldwin  and  Lafontaine  thereupon  resigned 
office.  This  constitutional  struggle  created  great  excitement 
throughout  the  country.  Party  lines  were  sharply  defined,  and 
Conservatives  and  Keformers  were  again  placed  in  strong 
political  antagonism. 

"VYitli  a  Reform  majority  in  the  Assembly,  the  Conservative 
leaders  were  unwilling  to  enter  the  Government.  A  provis- 
ional ministry,  under  the  leadership  of  Mr.  Draper,  was,  how- 


RESPONSIBLE   GOVERNMENT.  403 

ever,  formed,  which  resolved  to  appeal  to  the  country  by  a 
dissolution  of  the  House,  and  a  new  election. 

The  removal  of  the  seat  of  Government  to  Montreal  having 
been  previously  determined  by  a  vote  of  the  legislature,  with 
the  opening  of  navigation  the  transfer  of  the  depart-  i8«. 
mental  offices  and  Governor's  residence  took  place.  In  Novem- 
ber the  new  parliament  assembled,  and  was  found  to  contain  a 
small  Conservative  majority.  Sir  Allan  McNab,  an  acknowl- 
edged leader  of  the  Conservative  party,  was  chosen  Speaker. 
Mr.  Baldwin  was  the  leader  of  a  vigorous  Reform  Opposition, 
nearly  as  numerous  as  the  supporters  of  the  Government.  For 
his  distinguished  services  in  the  East  and  "West  Indies,  and  in 
approval  of  his  colonial  policy,  the  Governor-General  was 
raised  .to  the  peerage,  with  the  title  of  Baron  Metcalfe. 

The  Home  Government,  this  year,  proclaimed  an  amnesty  to 
all  the  leaders  in  the  late  rebellion,  except  Mackenzie,  who 
was  not  pardoned  till  1850.  The  feeling  of  hostility  towards 
them  had,  to  a  considerable  degree,  subsided.  By  not  a  few, 
indeed,  they  were  regarded  as  martyrs  to  a  popular  cause,  and 
some  of  them  were  returned  as  members  of  the  new  parlia- 
ment, which  met  for  the  first  time  in  Montreal,  on  the  28th  of 
November. 

Twice,  with  the  interval  of  a  month,  in  the  following  spring, 
the  city  of  Quebec  was  ravaged  by  fire.  Twenty-four  1845. 
thousand  persons  were  rendered  houseless,  and  several  lives 
were  lost.  A  spontaneous  outburst  of  charity  relieved  the 
more  pressing  necessities  of  the  suJfferers.  Half  a  million  of 
dollars  was  contributed  by  sympathizers  in  Great  Britain,  and 
nearly  half  as  much  in  Canada  and  the  United  States.  The 
American  people  promptly  and  generously  sent  a  shipload  of 
provisions  and  clothing  to  the  foodless  and  shelterless  multi- 
tude,—  an  act  of  international  charity  that  should  be  remem- 
bered when  the  record  of  international  strife  and  bloodshed 
shall  be  forgotten. 

The  aggravation  of  a  terrible  malady,  from  which  Lord 
Metcalfe  had  previously  suifered, — a  cancer  in  the  face, — 
caused  him  to  request  his  recall.     He  returned  to  England  in 


404  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

November,  and  shortly  after  his  arrival  died,  greatly  regretted. 
His  munificent  liberality,  and  many  personal  virtues,  com- 
manded the  respect  even  of  those  who  condemned  his  political 
acts. 

The  Earl  of  Cathcart,  Commander-in-Chief  of  Her  Majesty's 
forces  in  Canada,  was  appointed  administrator  of  the  govern- 
ment on  the  resignation  of  Lord  Metcalfe.  He  observed  a  wise 
neutrality  between  the  almost  evenly  balanced  political  parties. 
The  discussion  of  the  Eebellion  Losses  Bill  began  to  profoundly 
agitate  the  country.  The  Draper  ministry  had  recommended 
the  indemnification  of  Upper-Canadian  loyalists  who  had 
incurred  losses  during  the  recent  political  troubles.  A  special 
fund,  arising  from  tavern  and  other  licenses,  was  set  apart  for 
that  purpose,  to  the  amount  of  £40,000.  The  French-Cana- 
dian party  sujjported  the  measure,  on  the  understanding  that 
similar  provision  should  be  made  for  the  indemnity  of  the 
loyal  population  of  Lower  Canada.  Six  commissioners  were 
appointed  to  investigate  such  losses,  and  report  to  the  legisla- 
ture. They  were  instructed  to  "  classify  carefully  the  cases  of 
those  who  may  have  joined  in  the  said  rebellion,  or  who  may 
have  been  aiding  or  abetting  therein,  from  the  cases  of  those  who 
did  not."  The  commissioners  being  unauthorized  to  examine 
persons  or  papers,  based  their  report  solely  uj)on  the  sentences 
of  the  courts  of  law.  As  the  loyalty  of  all  persons  was 
assumed  unless  they  had  been  legally  convicted,  the  number  of 
claimants  reported  to  parliament  was  over  two  thousand,  and 
the  aggregate  amount  of  the  claims  was  £241,965.  This  sum 
was  made  up  by  claims  to  the  amount  of  £30,000  for  imprison- 
ment, banishment,  interruption  of  business,  loss  of  goods, 
account  books,  and  the  like;  £2,000  for  quartering  troops; 
personal  property,  £111,127;  real  property,  £69,961;  and 
interest,  £9,000.  Many  of  these  claims  were  deemed  quite 
preposterous,  and  others  as  being  greatly  exaggerated.  The 
commissioners,  however,  considered  that  £100,000  would  meet 
the  actual  losses  of  loyal  persons. 

The  manifest  difficulty  of  adjudicating  these  claims  made  the 
report  a  very  unsatisfactory  basis  of  legislation ;  but  the  Draper 


RESPOXSIBLE   GOVERNMENT.  405 

ministry,  dependent  largely  on  French-Canadian  support,  intro- 
duced a  bill  empowering  the  issue  of  debentures  to  i846. 
the  amount  of  £9,986,  for  the  indemnification  of  loyal  persons 
in  Lower  Canada.  This  measure  proved  satisfactory  to  neither 
party.  The  French-Canadians  considered  it  so  meagre  as  to  be 
almost  an  insult ;  and  the  Upper-Canadian  loyalists  deprecated 
the  giving  of  any  compensation  to  men  whom  they  regarded  as 
having  been,  almost  without  exception,  rebels. 


406  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 


CHAPTER  XXXn. 

EEBELLION  LOSSES  AGITATION. 

Lord  Elgin,  Governor-General,  1847  —  Irish  Famine  and  Vast  Emigration  to 
Canada  —  The  Draper  Administration  Resigns,  and  is  succeeded  by  the  Bald- 
wiu-Lafontaine  Ministry,  1848  —  Lower  Canadian  Eebellion  Losses  Bill — 
Lord  Elgin  Assents  to  the  Bill  —  He  is  Assailed  by  Violence,  and  the  Parlia- 
ment Buildings  Burned,  July  26,  1849  —  Tumultuary  Demand  for  the  Disal- 
lowance of  the  Bill  —  Rioting  suppressed  by  the  Military  —  The  Seat  of  Gov- 
ernment transferred  to  Toronto  and  Quebec  alternately  —  The  Bill  sustained 
by  the  Imperial  Parliament. 

IN  the  year  1847,  while  the  settlement  of  the  rebellion  losses 
was  still  pending,  Lord  Elgin  was  appointed  Governor- 
General  of  Canada.  He  was  a  son-in-law  of  the  Earl  of  Dur- 
ham, and  shared  his  liberal  sentimdnts  regarding  colonial 
administration.  He  had  succeeded  Lord  Metcalfe  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  Jamaica,  as  well  as  in  that  of  Canada.  His  sound 
judgment,  conciliatory  manners,  and  commanding  ability, 
enabled  him  to  overcome  formidable  opposition,  and  to  become 
one  of  the  most  honoured  representatives  of  Her  Majesty  that 
ever  administered  the  affairs  of  the  province. 

The  Draper  ministry  was  waning  in  popularity  and  influence, 
and  was  narrowly  watched  by  a  vigilant  Reform  press,  of  which 
the  leading  journal  was  the  Montreal  "Pilot,"  ably  edited  by 
Mr.  Hincks.  The  Rebellion  Losses  Bill,  and  the  secularization 
of  the  clergy  reserves,  which  was  strongly  advocated  by  the 
Refonn  party,  were  prominent  topics  of  public  discussion. 

On  the  meeting  of  parliament  on  the  2d  of  June,  Lord 
Elgin  announced  the  surrender  by  the  Imperial  Government  to 
the  colonial  authorities  of  the  post-office  department,  and  also 
that  the  provincial  legislature  was  empowered  to  repeal  the 
differential  duties  subsisting  in  favour  of  British  manufactures 
—  an  important  measure  of  fiscal-  emancipation.  The  long 
talked-of  intercolonial  railway,  which  only  reached  its  comple- 


REBELLION  LOSSES  AGITATION.  407 

tion  ill  1876,  was  also  the  subject  of  a  paragraph  m  the  speech 
from  the  throne.  After  a  short  but  busy  session,  during  which 
no  less  than  one  hundred  and  ten  bills  were  passed,  the  legisla- 
ture rose,  on  the  28th  of  July. 

The  season  was  characterized  by  an  unprecedented  immigra- 
tion from  Ireland.  In  consequence  of  the  failure  of  the  potato 
crop  through  rot,  a  famine  well-nigh  decimated  that  land.  An 
exodus  of  a  large  portion  of  its  population  took  place,  seventy 
thousand  of  whom  reached  Quebec  before  the  7th  of  August  of 
this  year.  Every  possible  provision  was  made  by  public  and 
private  charity  for  the  relief  of  their  necessities,  but  not  less 
than  four  thousand  died  from  exposure  and  fever.  Grosse  Isle 
became  a  quarantine  station.  A  temporary  camp  was  formed 
at  Point  St.  Charles,  Montreal,  where  thousands  obtained  relief 
and  assistance.  At  the  latter  place,  the  nameless  graves  of 
many  hundreds  are  commemorated  by  a  huge  granite  block 
which  marks  the  spot.  Immigrant  sheds  and  hospitals,  erected 
by  the  Government,  were  crowded  to  overflowing,  and  many 
slept  in  the  open  air  by  the  roadsides,  or  beneath  rude  blanket- 
tents.  A  relief  fund  was  established  on  behalf  of  the  famine- 
stricken  sufferers  who  still  remained  in  Ireland,  to  which  all 
classes  liberally  contributed,  even  the  Indian  tribes  on  their 
reserves  and  the  poor  coloured  people  of  the  province,  many  of 
whom  had  not  long  escaped  from  bondage. 

The  parliament  was  dissolved  on  the  6th  of  December,  and 
-the  elections  were  held  during  the  following  January.  i848. 
The  political  contest  was  waged  with  great  zeal  by  both  parties, 
and  resulted  in  a  large  Eeform  majority.  Messrs.  Baldwin, 
Price,  and  Blake  were  elected  for  the  three  ridings  of  York, 
Francis  Hincks  for  Oxford,  and  Malcolm  Cameron  for  Kent. 
Papineau,  the  arch-agitator  of  the  Lower-Canadian  rebellion, 
who  had  accepted  the  Queen's  pardon,  was  returned  for  St. 
Maurice,  and  Dr.  Wolfred  Nelson  for  the  county  of  Eichelieu, 
the  scene  of  his  armed  revolt,  which  he  had  lived  to  sincerely 
regret. 

On  the  opening  of  parliament,  February  25,  the  Draper 
ministry  resigned,  and  Messrs.  Baldwin  and  Lafontaine  were 


408  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

entrusted  with  the  task  of  forming  a  Liberal  cabinet.  The  new 
Executive  Council  was  composed  of  four  French  and  seven 
British  members  —  Messrs.  Lafontaine,  Caron,  Viger,  and 
Tache ;  and  Messrs.  Baldwin,  Hincks,  Cameron,  Sullivan, 
Price,  Leslie  and  Alywin.  Mr.  Blake,  afterwards  Vice-Chan- 
cellor,  became  Solicitor-General,  but  was  not  a  member  of  the 
Executive  Council.  The  formation  of  this  cabinet  was  the  full 
and  final  assertion  of  the  constitutional  principle  of  responsible 
government. 

The  country  was  thrilled  with  horror  by  the  atrocities  of  the 
three  days'  slaughter  in  the  French  capital  during  the  Revolu- 
tion of  1848.  Some  sympathy  was  felt  with  the  incipient  Irish 
rebellion  incited  by  John  Mitchel  and  Smith  O'Brien.  This, 
however,  soon  disappeared  on  the  prompt  and  bloodless  sup- 
pression of  the  revolt  by  the  policemen  of  Ballingarry. 

The  Imperial  Navigation  Laws  were  repealed,  and  Canadian 
commerce  emancipated  from  the  "  differential  duties  "  by  which 
it  had  been  fettered.  The  completion  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
canals  furnished  great  facilities  for  internal  traffic,  of  which  the 
commercial  classes  were  not  slow  in  taking  advantage. 

One  of  the  earliest  acts  of  the  Baldwin-Lafontaine  adminis- 
tration, on  the  meeting  of  parliament,  January  18,  1849,  was 
the  introduction  of  the  "  Rebellion  Losses  Bill."  It  authorized 
the  raising  of  £100,000  by  debentures  for  indemnifying  those 
persons  in  Lower  Canada  whose  property  had  been  destroyed 
by  the  rebels  in  the  unhappy  events  of  1837,  and  for  whom  no 
provision  had  been  made  in  the  bill  of  1846,  introduced  by  the 
Draper  ministry. 

The  measure  was  vehemently  denounced  by  the  Opposition, 
as  being  actually  a  premium  to  rebellion,  as  parties  who  had 
been  implicated  in  the  revolt  might,  under  its  provisions, 
receive  compensation  for  losses  sustained.  It  was  also  con- 
tended that  it  was  an  injustice  to  Upper  Canada  to  charge  this 
payment  on  the  consolidated  fund  of  the  country,  inasmuch  as 
the  upper  province  contributed  her  own  proportion  to  that  fund, 
and  would  thus  in  part  be  discharging  an  obligation  belonging 
exclusively  to  Lower  Canada. 


REBELLION  LOSSES  AGITATION:  409 

It  ■u'as  answered,  in  reply  to  the  first  objection,  that  all  per- 
sons oonviotcd  of  participating  in  the  rebellion  were  definitely 
excluded  from  the  provisions  of  the  Act ;  and  in  reply  to  the 
second,  that  the  Upper  Canadian  rebellion  losses  had  also  been 
defrayed  out  of  the  same  consolidated  fund  by  the  late  admin- 
istration, whose  policy  the  present  government  was  only  carry- 
ing out. 

But  these  arguments  availed  not.  "  No  pay  to  rebels"  was 
the  popular  cry.  The  excitement  became  intense,  and  even 
led  to  a  disafi'ection  akin  to  that  which  w\^s  so  vehemently 
denounced.  A  British  North  American  League  was  formed  for 
the  express  purpose  of  breaking  up  the  union.  To  escape 
from  French  domination,  as  it  was  called,  a  confederation  with 
Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick  was  proposed,  failing  which, 
the  leaders  of  the  League  avowed  their  purpose  of  throwing 
themselves  into  the  arms  of  the  United  States  —  rash  words, 
which  became  the  occasion  of  the  taunt  of  disloyalty  from  their 
opponents. 

The  ministry,  however,  sustained  by  a  strong  majority  in 
both  Houses,  determined  to  face  the  storm ;  and  the  passage  of 
the  bill  was  made  the  condition  by  the  French  members  of  their 
support  of  the  Government.  By  a  vote  of  forty-eight  to  thirty- 
two,  it  passed  the  Assembly,  and  soon  received  the  assent  of 
the  Legislative  Council.  The  intelligence  of  this  vote  caused 
intense  excitement  throughout  the  country.  In  Toronto, 
Messrs.  Baldwin,  Blake,  and  Mackenzie,  the  last-named  of 
whom  had  just  returned  to  the  country  a  pardoned  refugee, 
■vvTre  burned  in  effigy.  The  house  where  Mackenzie  lodged, 
and  those  of  Dr.  Rolph  and  George  Brown,  were  attacked  and 
damaged. 

It  was  thought  that  Lord  Elgin,  intimidated  by  the  violent 
opposition  manifested,  would  not  venture  to  give  his  assent  to 
the  bill,  but  would  either  veto  it  or  reserve  it  for  the  considera- 
tion of  the  Home  Government.  This  latter  course  w^ould 
probably  have  been  the  better,  as  allowing  time  for  the  popular 
excitement  to  become  allayed.  But  however  violent  the  minor- 
ity opposed  to  the  bill,  however  high  and  influential  their  posi- 


410  HISTORY  OF  CAXADA. 

tion,  the  ministry  by  wliich  it  was  proposed  commanded  the 
majority  of  both  branches  of  the  legislature  and  the  confidence 
of  the  country.  To  veto  the  bill,  therefore,  would  be  to  become 
a  partisan  Governor,  and  perhaps  to  kindle  the  flames  of  civil 
war.  The  French,  denied  the  redress  of  their  grievances  by 
constitutional  means,  would  certainly  have  been  driven  into  dis- 
affection, and  probably  into  armed  revolt.  It  was  the  crisis  of 
responsible  government,  and  Lord  Elgin,  in  spite  of  the  men- 
aced odium  of  the  Opposition  party,  determined  to  act  as  a 
constitutional  Governor. 

On  the  26th  of  July,  he  proceeded  in  state  to  the  Parliament 
House,  on  the  site  where  now  stands  St.  Anne's  market,  and 
gave  assent  to  the  obnoxious  bill.  On  leaving  the  building  he 
was  received  with  groans  and  hootings  by  a  well-dressed  mob 
about  the  doors,  and  his  carriage,  as  he  drove  off,  was  assailed 
with  stones  and  rotten  eggs. 

The  city  was  thrown  into  a  ferment.  The  House  met  again 
in  the  evening.  The  fire-bells  rang  an  alarm.  A  tumultuous 
crowd  assembled  on  the  broad  parade  of  the  Champ  de  Mars  to 
denounce  the  procedure  of  the  Governor.  Violent  speeches 
were  made.  The  cry  was  raised,  "  To  the  Parliament  House  ! " 
The  excited  mob  surged  through  the  streets,  led  by  a  party  of 
men  with  flaring  torches.  The  legislative  halls  were  brilliantly 
lighted  up,  and  the  Assembly  was  in  session.  A  number  of 
visitors,  including  ladies,  occupied  the  galleries.  Suddenly  a 
shower  of  stones  shattered  the  windows.  The  rioters  rushed  into 
the  Assembly  chamber  ;  the  ladies  and  members  fled  into  the  lobby. 
A  ruflSan  seated  himself  in  the  Speaker's  chair,  and  shouted, 
"  The  French  parliament  is  dissolved."  The  work  of  destruc- 
tion went  on.  Chandeliers  were  shattered,  the  members'  seats 
and  desks  broken  and  piled  in  the  middle  of  the  floor,  and  the 
Speaker's  mace  carried  off.  The  cry  of  "  Fire  !"  was  raised. 
The  flames,  kindled  by  the  incendiary  mob,  raged  furiously. 
The  members  strove  in  vain  to  save  the  public  records.  Sir 
Allan  McNab  succeeded  in  rescuing  the  portrait  of  Her  Majesty, 
which  cost  £500.  The  rioters  prevented  the  extinction  of  the 
flames. 


REBELLION  LOSSES  AGITATION. 


411 


Before  moniing,  the  Parliament  House,  with  its  splendid 
library,  containing  many  thousands  of  valuable  books  and  pub- 
lic records,  was  a  mass  of  smouldering  ruins.  The  money  loss 
was  more  than  the  entire  amount  voted  by  the  obnoxious  bill ; 
but  who  shall  estimate  the  reproach  brought  upon  the  fair  fame 
of  the  country  by  this  lawless  vandalism  ? 

The  rioters,  having  carried  off  the  mace,  proceeded  to  attack 
the  oiSce  of  the  ' '  Pilot "  newspaper.  The  next  night  they 
wrecked  the  house  of  the  premier,  Mr.  Lafontaine,  and  attacked 
the  dwellings  of  Messrs.  Baldwin,  Cameron,  Hincks,  Holmes, 
Wilson,  and  Dr.  Wolfred  Nelson.  They  were  only  prevented 
from  assaulting  the  old  Government  House,  where  the  ministers 
were  assembled  in  council,  by  the  bayonets  of  a  strong  guard 
of  military.  The  Assembly,  which  met  in  Bonsecour  Hall,  by 
a  large  majority  passed  resolutions  approving  of  the  action  of 
the  Governor;  which, 'however,  were  strongly  resisted  by  Sir 
Allan  McNab  and  the  Opposition. 

The  same  day  a  turbulent  meeting  in  the  Champ  de  Mars 
passed  resolutions  for  an  address  to  the  Queen,  praying  her  to 
disallow  the  obnoxious  bill,  and  to  recall  the  unpopular  Gov- 
ernor-General. Three  hundred  and  fifty  persons,  mostly  of 
some  local  importance,  signed  a  manifesto  declaring  that  annexa- 
tion to  the  United  States  was  the  only  remedy  for  the  political 
and  commercial  condition  of  the  country.  This,  of  course, 
was  a  mere  outburst  of  partisan  feeling. 

On  the  30th  of  April,  four  days  after  the  outbreak.  Lord 
Elgin  drove  to  town  to  receive  the  loyal  address  of  the  Assem- 
bly. Although  escorted  by  dragoons,  he  was  greeted  with 
showers  of  stones,  and  with  difficulty  escaped  bodily  injury. 

The  mob  increasing  around  the  old  Government  House,  and 
exhibiting  much  turbulence.  Captain  Weatheral,  who  was  a 
magistrate,  read  the  Riot  Act.  The  rioters  failing  to  disperse, 
he  ordered  the  guard  to  charge  upon  them.  The  crowd  cheered 
the  soldiers  as  they  got  out  of  their  way,  but  still  awaited  the 
re-appearance  of  the  Governor.  Not  wishing  to  exasperate  the 
excited  mob,  Lord  Elgin  left  the  building  unobserved,  and  was 
driven  rapidly  in  the  direction  of  Sherbrooke  Street  to  the 


412  BISTORT  OF  CANADA. 

north  of  the  city.  His  escape  being  discovered,  a  hot  pursuit 
was  made  in  cabs,  cale§hes,  everything  that  had  wheels.  He 
was  intercepted  in  the  main  street  of  the  St.  Lawrence  suburbs. 
A  shower  of  stones  shattered  every  panel  of  his  carriage  and 
severely  wounded  Captain  Bruce,  his  Excellency's  brother  and 
aide-de-camp.  Through  the  skilful  and  rapid  driving  of  the 
postilions,  the  Governor  escaped  from  the  assaults  of  the 
enraged  rioters. 

The  next  day  the  premier's  house  was  again  attacked.  The 
military  were  obliged  to  fire  on  the  mob,  and  unfortunately 
killed  one  man.  An  inquest  was  held,  but  an  attempt  was 
made  to  fire  the  house  in  which  it  was  sitting.  The  funeral  of 
the  unfortunate  man  who  was  killed  was  made  the  occasion  of 
a  threatening  demonstration.  It  was  attended  by  an  immense 
cortege,  and  the  scarfs  of  the  pall-bearers  and  housings  of  the 
horses  were  of  crimson  cloth — a  menace  of  revenge. 

Temporary  quarters  were  procured  for  the  Assembly  and  the 
session  was  speedily  brought  to  a  close.  Parliament  sat  no 
more  in  Montreal.  This  outbreak  of  mob  violence  drove  it 
from  the  city,  and  it  has  never  since  returned.  Deputations 
from  Quebec  and  Toronto  requested  its  removal  to  their  re- 
spective cities.  Mr.  John  A.  Macdonald  moved  that  Kingston 
become  again  the  capital.  Ottawa  was  also  proposed,  but  it 
was  resolved  to  transfer  the  seat  of  government  to  Toronto  for 
the  next  two  years,  and  afterwards  to  Quebec  and  Toronto 
alternately  every  four  years. 

In  consequence  of  the  public  censure  of  his  acts.  Lord  Elgin 
tendered  his  resignation  to  the  Imperial  authorities ;  but  the 
Queen  and  the  Home  Government  expressed  their  approval  of 
his  course,  and  requested  his  continuatnce  in  office.  The  Rebel- 
lion Losses  Bill  Was  sustained  by  both  Houses  of  the  Imperial 
parliament ;  and  Lord  Elgin,  assured  of  the  personal  favour  of 
his  sovereign  and  advanced  a  step  in  the  peerage,  continued  to 
administer  the  government,  and  in  time  won  the  esteem  of  even 
his  most  bitter  opponents. 


THE  RAILWAY  ERA.  413 


CHAPTER    XXXm. 

THE    EAILWAY    ERA. 

Political  and  Commercial  Emancipation  of  Canada  —  Parliament  Meets  in 
Toronto,  1850  —  Clergy  Reserve  Question  —  Postal  Reform  —  Northern  Rail- 
way Begun,  1851  —  Joseph  Howe  Agitates  the  Intercolonial  Railway  Scheme 

—  Canada  at  the  World's  Fair  —  Grand  Trunk  and  Great  Western  Railways 
Projected  —  Retirement  of  Robert  Baldwin  from  the  Ministry  —  Francis 
Hincks,  Premier  —  His  Fiscal  Policy  —  Quebec  the  Seat  of  Government,  1852 

—  Incorporation  of  Grand  Trunk  Railway  Company  —  Its  Financial  Policy 

—  Municipal  Loan  Fund  Act  —  Increased  Representation  —  Financial  State 
of  the  Country. 

FROM  the  year  1850,  the  British  North  American  colonies 
may  be  said  to  have  entered  on  a  new  era,  —  to  have 
reached  their  political  manhood.  The  period  of  tutelage,  —  of 
government  from  Downing  Street, — had  passed  away.  The 
right  to  the  management  of  their  own  local  affairs  was  conceded 
by  the  Home  authorities,  and  that  of  responsible  government 
was  vindicated  in  the  colonies.  The  British  Government 
reserved  only  the  right  of  disallowing  any  acts  of  legislation 
opposed  to  Imperial  interests,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  assumed 
the  burden  of  colonial  defence.  Canada  was  thus  one  of  the 
most  lightly  taxed  and  favourably  situated  countries  in  the 
world,  and  offered  great  inducements  to  the  influx  of  capital 
and  immigration,  and  soon  entered  upon  a  career  of  remarkable 
prosperity. 

The  repeal  of  the  British  corn-laws,  under  the  administra- 
tion of  Sir  Robert  Peel,  in  1846,  opened  to  Great  Britain  the 
grain  markets  of  the  world.  Canada  was,  therefore,  placed  in 
a  similar  relation  with  other  grain-exporting  countries.  The 
United  States  possessed,  for  a  time,  an  advantage,  through  its 
superior  railway  system  and  facilities  for  exportation.  Previous 
to  1847,  the  commercial  relations  of  the  North  American 
colonies   were   largely  regulated  by  the   British   Government 


414  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

in  favour  of  British  manufacturing  interests.  Higher  duties 
were  imposed  on  importations  from  foreign  countries  than  on 
those  from  Great  Britain.  In  that  year,  by  permission  of  the 
Home  authorities,  these  differential  duties  were  repealed. 
Thus  colonial  trade  was  emancipated  from  a  serious  restriction. 
In  1849,  the  British  parliament,  by  the  repeal  of  the  Naviga- 
tion Laws,  broke  down  almost  the  sole  remaining  barrier  of 
protection.  Some  derangement  of  commerce,  especially  in  the 
maritime  j)rovinces,  resulted  from  the  repeal  of  these  laws. 
American  vessels  could  now  be  registered  in  British  ports,  and 
compete  with  the  colonial  shipping  in  the  carrying-trade  with 
Great  Britain.  A  temporary  commercial  depression  followed, 
causing  a  degree  of  discontent  which  found  expression  in  the 
complaint  that  England  was  casting  off  her  colonies.  A  spirit 
of  enterprise  and  self-reliance,  however,  was  soon  developed. 
Commercial  independence  was  attained.  The  colonies  were 
permitted  to  trade  freely  with  any  part  of  the  world  ;  to  import 
as  they  pleased,  subject  to  a  tariff  fixed  by  themselves,  and  to 
cultivate  home  enterprises,  and  develop  home  manufactures,  as 
they  saw  fit. 

In  order  to  allay  the  discontent  resulting  from  the  transient 
depression  caused  by  these  changes,  Lord  Elgin  was  instructed 
to  open  negotiations  for  a  treaty  of  commercial  reciprocity  with 
the  United  States.  An  agent  proceeded  to  Washington  for 
this  purpose,  but  the  project  was  not  consummated  till  four 
years  later.  But,  meantime,  the  volume  of  international  trade 
was  annually  increasing.  Canadian  exports  and  imports  passed 
in  large  quantities,  in  bond,  through  the  United  States  to  the 
seaboard,  especially  in  winter  when  the  Canadian  ports  were 
closed,  and  formed  an  important  item  in  the  railroad  traffic  of 
that  country. 

Commercial  reciprocity  with  the  United  States,  when  finally 
carried  into  effect,  caused  an  immense  development  of  inter- 
national trade,  and  largely  increased  the  value  of  every  acre  of 
land,  of  every  bushel  of  wheat,  and  of  every  head  of  cattle  in 
the  country.  A  great  impetus  was  also  given  to  ship-building, 
to  milling  and  manufacturing  interests,. to  stock-raising,  wool- 


THE  RAILWAY  ERA.  415 

growdng,  and  cloth-weaving,  to  the  construction  of  agi-icultural 
implements,  and  to  every  other  branch  of  industry. 

This  prosperity  was  still  further  increased  by  the  extraordi- 
nary development  of  Canadian  railway  enterprises,  and  the 
consequent  opening  up  of  new  parts  of  the  country  and  in- 
creased facilities  for  travel  and  transport  throughout  its  entire 
extent.  The  large  employment  of  labour  and  the  expenditure 
of  immense  amounts  of  money  in  constructing  the  various  rail- 
ways also  greatly  stimulated  enterprise.  Facilities  for  trade 
were  still  further  increased  by  the  establishment  of  the  trans- 
atlantic line  of  steamships.  Quebec  and  Montreal  were  thus 
brought  within  speedy  and  regular  communication  with  Great 
Britain,  to  the  immense  commercial  advantage  of  those  cities. 
The  introduction  and  rapid  extension  of  telegraphic  communi- 
cation also  greatly  facilitated  the  transaction  of  business. 

The  establishment  of  municipal  institutions  created  an  intelli- 
gent interest  in  the  local  management  of  public  affairs,  and 
stimulated  a  spirit  of  local  enteqirlse  and  improvement.  The 
legalizing  of  municipal  loan  funds,  the  formation  of  joint-stock 
companies  and  expansion  of  banking  institutions,  promoted  the 
introduction  of  capital  and  its  profitable  employment. 

The  secularization  of  the  clergy  reserves  and  the  abolition  of 
seigneurial  tenure,  removed  impediments  to  material  prosperity 
and  causes  of  popular  discontent ;  the  consolidation  of  the 
legal  code  simplified  the  administration  of  justice ;  and  the 
thorough  organization  of  the  public-school  system  and  growth 
of  newspaper  and  publishing  enterprise  contributed  to  the 
difiiision  of  general  intelligence. 

To  Ihese  important  subjects  reference  must  now  be  made 
somewhat  in  detail. 

In  1850,  the  seat  of  Government  was  transferred  to  Toronto. 
The  first  appearance  of  the  Governor-General  in  the  Upper 
province  was  made  the  occasion  of  the  exhibition  of  some 
political  animosity ;  but  the  urbanity  of  his  manner,  and  the 
integrity  of  his  conduct,  disarmed  resentment,  conciliated 
popular  favour,  and,  at  length,  won  warm  esteem. 

On  the  assembling  of  the  legislature,  May  14,  there  was  the 


416  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

promise  of  a  quiet  session.  Warned  by  recent  experience  of 
the  disastrous  results  of  violent  partisanship,  both  political 
parties  seemed  disposed  to  a  truce,  and  avoided  exciting  topics 
and  acrimonious  debate.  Mr.  Papineau,  indeed,  resumed  his 
advocacy  of  an  elective  Legislative  Council,  but  this  was  only 
consistent  with  his  life-long  policy. 

The  discussion  of  the  clergy  reserve  question  was  renewed 
outside  of  the  House,  principally  in  the  journals  of  the 
advanced  Keform  party,  the  chief  of  which  were  the  *'  Globe  " 
and  "  Examiner "  of  Toronto.  Some  of  the  older  and  more 
moderate  Reformers,  opposed  the  re-opening  of  this  question, 
and  were  willing  to  abide  by  the  settlement  of  the  subject  that 
had  been  effected  by  parhament  during  Lord  Sydenham's 
administration.  Another  section  of  the  Reform  party  which 
was  rapidly  rising  into  influence,  wished  for  their  entire  secu- 
larization. A  division  in  the  ranks  of  the  party  thus  took 
place,  which  led  to  future  political  complications. 

Meanwhile,  the  material  progress  of  the  country  was  rapid. 
1851.  The  transfer  of  the  management  of  the  post-office 
department  was  followed  by  increased  postal  facilities  and  the 
reduction  of  letter-rates,  a  uniform  letter-tariif  of  threepence 
per  half  ounce  being  introduced.  The  magnificent  system  of 
internal  navigation,  by  means  of  the  Canadian  lakes,  rivers, 
and  canals,  was  increased  in  value  by  light-houses  and  other 
improvements,  and  was  soon  to  be  largely  supplemented  by  an 
extensive  railway  system.  The  first  sod  of  the  Northern  Rail- 
way of  Canada,  —  the  pioneer  of  Canadian  railway  enterprises, 
excejot  a  short  section  in  Lower  Canada, — was  turned  amid 
imposing  ceremonies  by  Lady  Elgin ;  and,  by  the  construction 
of  the  road,  a  most  important  agricultural  country  was  opened  up. 

The  importance,  from  a  military  point  of  view,  of  an  inter- 
colonial railway  bet^^een  the  maritime  provinces  and  Canada 
had  been  pointed  out  by  Lord  Durham,  and  its  construction 
had  been  a  favourite  scheme  of  successive  Governments.  The 
difficulty  and  expense  of  the  undertaking,  however,  were  so 
great  that  the  Imperial  authorities  declined  to  guarantee  a 
provincial  loan  for  the  purpose. 


THE  RAILWAY  ERA.  417 

In  1850,  a  railway  convention  was  held  at  Portland,  out  of 
which  grew  the  project  of  the  European  and  North  American 
Eailway,  connecting  Halifax  and  St.  John  with  Portland  and 
the  railway  system  of  the  United  States.  Joseph  Howe,  an 
energetic  and  patriotic  Nova  Scotian  editor  and  political  leader, 
threw  himself,  with  characteristic  enthusiasm,  into  these  rail- 
way projects.  Sustained  by  the  public  opinion  of  his  province, 
he  went  to  England  to  urge  upon  the  Imperial  Government  the 
construction  of  an  intercolonial  road.  His  energy  and  eloquence 
made  a  very  favourable  impression  as  to  the  importance  of  the 
undertaking,  and  of  the  immense  and  valuable  undeveloped 
resources  of  the  country, — which  was  increased  by  the  very 
creditable  exhibit  of  the  British  North  American  provinces  at 
the  World's  Fair  of  1851,  successfully  projected  by  the  late 
Prince  Consort. 

A  convention  was  called  at  Toronto  by  Lord  Elgin,  to  settle 
the  shares  and  responsibilities  to  be  borne  by  the  several  prov- 
inces in  this  great  undertaking.  The  Imperial  guarantee, 
without  which  no  loan  could  be  raised  for  such  a  gigantic  proj- 
ect, could  not  be  obtained,  and  the  scheme,  for  the  time,  fell 
through.  Each  province  was  left  to  carry  out  separate  enter- 
prises of  railway  construction.  In  the  province  of  Canada, 
the  Grand  Trunk  line,  connecting  the  lakes  with  tide-water, 
and  the  Great  Western  Eailway,  connecting  at  the  Niagara  and 
Detroit  rivers  with  the  railway  systems  of  the  United  States, 
were  regarded  as  of  more  practical  utility  than  one  to  the 
maritime  provinces.  Into  the  Grand  Trunk  scheme,  Mr. 
Francis  Hincks  threw  himself  with  characteristic  energy,  and 
the  Great  Western  Railway  was  actively  promoted  by  Sir  Allan 
ISIcNab  and  others  in  the  upper  province. 

The  growing  intimacy  of  commercial  relations  between 
Canada  and  the  United  States  was  the  occasion  of  a  grand 
international  fete  at  Boston,  September,  1851,  at  which  the 
most  cordial  sentiments  of  mutual  peace  and  good-will  found 
utterance.  Lord  Elgin,  especially,  won  laurels  for  himself, 
and  cemented  the  bonds  of  amity  between  the  two  countries  by 

53 


418  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

the  happy  eloquence  of  his  speech,  and  by  the  genial  courtesy 
of  his  manners. 

The  growing  political  influence  of  what  might  be  called  the 
extreme  wing  of  the  Keform  party,  popularly  designated  the 
"  Clear  Grits,"  from  their  supposed  intense  radicalism,  led  to  a 
re-organization  of  the  cabinet.  Mr.  Robert  Baldwin,  in  accord- 
ance with  his  constitutional  principles,  had  already  retired  from 
oflSce  on  being  outvoted  on  a  measure  connected  with  the  Court 
of  Chancery.  In  the  new  cabinet.  Dr.  Rolph,  the  former  rebel, 
and  now  pardoned  refugee,  and  Malcolm  Cameron,  another 
"advanced  Reformer,"  found  places.  Mr.  Hincks  became 
premier  by  right  of  his  predominant  influence  in  the  ministry, 
and  entered  upon  that  fiscal  policy  which  at  once  so  greatly 
aided  the  development  of  the  country  and  increased  its  finan- 
cial Imrdens.  A  general  election  resulted,  in  which  several  old 
and  honoured  members  of  the  Reform  party  were  rejected,  and 
several  new  men  were  introduced.  Robert  Baldwin  was 
defeated  in  York,  and  "William  Lyon  Mackenzie  was  returned 
for  Haldimand  —  strikin^:  indications  of  the  chang^e  which  had 
come  over  the  party. 

During  the  following  summer,  a  terrible  fire  devastated  a 
1853.  large  portion  of  Montreal,  chiefly  the  wooden  tene- 
ments of  the  French  population,  destroying  about  $1,000,000 
worth  of  property,  and  rendering  ten  thousand  of  the  inhabi- 
tants homeless.  A  generous  outburst  of  sympathy  and  of  prac- 
tical beneficence  was  evoked  throughout  the  provinces  by  this 
disaster,  in  which  all  classes,  irrespective  of  race,  or  creed,  or 
l^arty,  joined. 

Quebec  now  became  for  four  years  the  seat  of  government. 
Parliament  met  in  the  old  historic  capital  on  the  16th  of 
August,  and  Mr.  John  Sandfield  Macdonald  became  Speaker 
of  the  Legislative  Assembly.  During  a  busy  session  of  three 
months,  one  hundred  and  ninety-three  Acts  were  duly  passed. 
No  less  than  twenty-eight  of  these  had  reference  to  railway 
matters  —  an  evidence  of  the  enthusiasm  which  had  taken  pos- 
session of  the  public  mind  on  this  subject.  Among  the  most 
importajut  of  these  was  the  Act  incorporating  the  Grand  Trunk 


THE  RAILWAY  ERA.  419 

Railway,  one  of  the  longest  roads  under  one  management  in 
the  world.  The  bonds  of  the  company  received  the  guarantee 
of  the  province  to  the  extent  of  £3,000  sterling  per  mile.  A 
further  grant  was  made  of  £40,000  for  every  £100,000  ex- 
pended l3y  the  company.  Thus,  during  the  construction  of  the 
road,  a  sum  of  $16,000,000  was  added  to  the  liabilities  of  the 
country,  and  in  fourteen  years  the  indebtedness  to  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  Grand  Trunk  Railway,  including  unpaid  interest, 
was  $23,000,000. 

This  increase  of  the  provincial  liabilities,  however,  was  more 
than  compensated  indirectly  by  the  immense  impetus  given  to 
the  internal  development  of  the  country,  the  increased  value  of 
real  estate,  and  the  facilities  for  transport  and  travel  furnished 
to  the  public.  As  a  financial  operation  the  building  of  the 
road  was  disastrous  to  the  English  shareholders,  its  stock  hav- 
ing always  ruled  very  low  on  'Change.  The  great  cost  of  con- 
struction and  of  maintenance,  the  severity  of  the  winters,  and, 
especially  at  first,  the  lack  of  remunerative  local  traffic  and 
travel,  and  competition  with  the  through  lines  from  the  "West 
to  the  seaboard,  and,  during  the  summer,  wdth  the  lake  and 
river  water-carriage,  all  conspired  to  greatly  reduce  its  profits. 

Another  piece  of  legislation  introduced  by  Mr.  Hincks, 
which  largely  increased  the  public  indebtedness,  was  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Consolidated  Municipal  Loan  Fund  for  Upper 
Canada.  The  intention,  and  to  a  certain  degree  the  result,  of 
this  measure,  were  beneficent.  It  enabled  municipalities  to 
obtain  money  for  local  improvements,  roads,  bridges,  and  rail- 
way construction,  which  proved  of  great  and  permanent  value 
to  the  country.  Encouraged  by  the  facilities  for  raising  money, 
however,  some  municipalities  rushed  into  rash  expenditure  and 
incurred  debts,  the  burden  of  which,  in  consequence  of  their 
inability  to  meet  their  engagements,  fell  upon  the  Government. 
The  Act  w^as  subsequently  amended,  extending  its  provisions 
to  Lower  Canada,  and  limiting  the  amount  of  the  fund  to 
£1,500,000  for  each  province.  That  limit  was  soon  reached  in 
the  upper  province,  where  the  loan  was  most  rapidly  taken 
up,    and    the    expenditure    under   this    scheme,    in    the    two 


420  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

Canadas,  soon  increased  the  public  debt  by  the  amount  of 
nearly  ten  millions. 

During  this  session,  by  the  Parliamentary  Representation 
Act,  the  number  of  members  of  the  Assembly  was  raised  from 
eighty-four  to  one  hundred  and  thirty,  sixty-five  for  each  prov- 
ince, and  the  representation  was  more  equitably  distributed 
territorially. 

Among  the  other  subjects  of  parliamentary  discussion  were 
the  abolition  of  seigneurial  tenure,  the  introduction  of  decimal 
currency,  and  the  establishment  of  a  line  of  ocean  steamers 
between  Quebec  and  Liverpool  —  all  of  which  were  sub- 
sequently carried  into  effect. 

The  finances  of  the  country,  notwithstanding  its  growing 
expenditure,  exhibited  remarkable  elasticity,  the  surplus  of  the 
revenue  being  nearly  $1,000,000*.  Canadian  securities  bear- 
ing six  per  cent,  interest  were  quoted  at  a  premium  of  sixteen 
per  cent,  on  the  London  Stock  Exchange.  The  heavy  interest 
account  resulting  from  the  legislation  of  this  session,  however, 
soon  reduced  the  surplus  to  zero,  and  led  to  a  series  of  annual 
deficits  that  greatly  lowered  the  value  of  Canadian  securities  in 
the  money  market. 

•  The  revenue  for  the  year  waa  $3,976,706 ;  the  expenditure,  $3,059,081 ;  the 
surplus,  $917,625. 


IMPORTANT  LEGISLATION.  421 


CHAPTER  XXXIV. 

IMPORTANT  LEGISLATION. 

The  Gavazzi  Eiota  at  Quebec  and  Montreal  —  Reciprocity  Treaty  Concluded, 
1854  —  Its  Conditions  and  Results  —  Tlio  Hiucks  Ministry  is  Defeated  — 
It  Appeals  to  tlio  Country  —  Dissolution  of  Parliament  and  General  Election 

—  The    Hiucks   Ministry   Resigns  —  The   McNab-Morin  Coalition  Cabinet 
Formed  —  State  of  Parties  —  The   Secularization  of  the  Clergy  Reserves 

—  The  Abolition  of  Seigneurial  Tenure  —  Encouragement  of  Immigration  — 
Incorporation  of  Canada  Steamship  Company  —  Resignation  of  Lord  Elgin 

—  His  Subsequent  Career  and  Death  —  Retirement  of  Mr.  Hincks  —  The 
Crimean  War  —  Canadian  Sympathy. 

T^O  prominent  subjects  of  public  interest  continued  to 
provoke  warm  discussion  in  the  political  press  —  the 
settlement  of  the  seigneurial  tenure  and  the  clergy  reserve  ques- 
tion. The  latter  subject  was  formally  surrendered  to  isss. 
the  Canadian  parliament  for  legislation  .by  the  Home  Govern- 
ment, by  an  Act  passed  May  9,  1853.  The  life-interests  of  the 
existing  claimants  on  the  reserves  were,  however,  in  accordance 
with  Lord  Sydenham's  Act,  to  be  strictly  protected. 

In  Montreal  and  Quebec,  the  great  commercial  cities  of 
Lower  Canada,  the  Protestant  and  Roman  Catholic  population 
had  dwelt  together  side  by  side,  for  the  most  part,  in  peace  and 
harmony  since  the  conquest.  Whatever  interruptions  of  con- 
cord had  taken  place,  arose  rather  from  political  than  from  relig- 
ious differences.  An  unhappy  occurrence  now  took  place,  which 
led  to  a  break  in  this  harmony,  and  was  the  occasion  of  a  good 
deal  of  acrimony.  Father  Gavazzi,  an  Italian  priest,  who  had 
become  a  convert  to  Protestantism,  was  lecturing  at  Quebec  on 
the  topics  of  controversy  between  the  two  Churches.  His 
impassioned  eloquence  excited  the  antagonism  of  his  former 
co-rcligionists,  who  assailed  the  church  in  which  he  was  speak- 
ing, and  violently  dispersed  the  congregation,  June  6.  Gavazzi 
proceeded  to  Montreal,  and  attempted  to  lecture  in  Zion  Church 


422  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

in  tbat  city,  three  nights  after  the  outbreak  at  Quebec.  Fears 
of  a  riot  were  entertained,  and  a  strong  force  of  police,  with  a 
company  of  the  Twenty-Sixth  Regiment,  which  had,  a  few  days 
before,  arrived  from  Gibraltar,  were  held  in  readiness  for  an 
emergency.  A  tumultuous  crowd,  composed,  it  was  averred, 
chiefly  of  Irish  Eoman  Catholics,  broke  through  the  police,  and 
forced  their  way  into  the  church.  Here  a  formidable  riot  took 
place,  pistol-shots  were  freely  fired,  and  Gavazzi  with  difficulty 
escaped.  The  church  was  soon  cleared,  and  hostilities  were  re- 
sumed without  the  building.  The  mayor  of  the  city,  INIr.  Charles 
Wilson,  read  the  Eiot  Act,  and  invoked  the  aid  of  the  military, 
placing  them  in  two  divisions  between  the  combatants.  It  was 
alleged  that  the  mayor  gave  the  command  to  fire  on  the  crowd. 
This,  however,  he  afterwards  positively  denied.  It  seems 
probaljle  that  one  man  discharged  his  piece  through  mis- 
apprehension. Others  followed  his  example,  till  the  officers 
threw  themselves  in  front  and  struck  up  the  firelocks.  By  the 
volley,  five  persons  were  slain  and  forty  wounded,  some  of 
them  very  severely. 

This  tragical  occurrence  caused  intense  excitement  in  the 
city  and  throughout  the  country.  A  very  bitter  feeling  was 
manifested  toward  the  military,  some  of  whom  were  waylaid 
and  beaten  in  the  street.  A  court  of  inquiry  was  held,  and 
the  regiment  was  shortly  transferred  to  Bermuda.  The  fact 
that  the  mayor  was  a  Roman  Catholic,  intensified  the  party 
religious  feeling,  and  unfiivourably  afiected  the  popularity  of 
the  Hincks  administration.  It  was  accused  of  manifesting 
partiality  toward  the  Roman  Catholic  faction,  in  order  to  secure 
their  political  support.  A  considerable  number  of  the  Protest- 
ant population  transferred  their  allegiance  to  Mr.  Brown,  who 
was  regarded  as  the  most  eminent  supporter  of  Protestantism 
in  the  Assembly. 

The  delay  in  dealing  with  the  long-vexed  clergy  reserve  and 
seigneurial  tenure  questions  was  a  strong  ground  of  dissatisfac- 
tion with  a  large  and  growing  section  of  the  Reform  party. 
Charges  of  political  corruption,  and  of  employing  his  official 
influencTe  for  the  advantajre  of  himself  and  his  friends,  in  the 


IMPORTANT  LEGISLATION.  423 

purchase  of  city  debentures  and  public  lands,  were  freely  made 
against  Mr.  Ilincks,  and  materially  lessened  his  popularity  and 
that  of  his  Government.  It  must  be  stated,  however,  although 
members  of  his  administration  may  have  acquired  property 
through  political  influence,  that  Mr.  Hincks,  on  the  fall  of  his 
Government,  was  still  a  poor  man.  The  Conservative  Opposi- 
tion was  now  strengthened  by  the  co-operation  of  many  of  the 
advanced  Reform  party,  of  whom  Mr.  Brown  and  Mr.  William 
Lyon  Mackenzie  may  be  regarded  as  conspicuous  examples. 

The  subject  of  international  reciprocity  between  Canada  and 
the  United  States,  had,  ever  since  the  repeal  of  the  Navigation 
Laws  in  1849,  engaged  the  attention  of  both  Imperial  1854. 
and  colonial  authorities.  The  negotiations  between  the  two 
neighbouring  countries  were  now  happily  approaching  com- 
pletion. Lord  Elgin,  having  first  gone  to  England  to  promote 
the  scheme,  proceeded  to  Washington,  as  the  special  envoy  of 
the  Imperial  Government,  to  close  the  treaty.  It  was  signed 
on  the  5th  of  June,  1854,  by  Lord  Elgin  and  the  Hon.  W.  L. 
Marcy,  as  representatives  of  their  respective  countries.  It 
provided  for  the  free  interchange  of  the  products  of  the  sea, 
the  soil,  the  forest,  and  the  mine.  The  waters  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence, the  St.  John  and  the  canals,  and  the  inshore  fisheries 
in  the  British  waters,  were  conceded  to  the  United  States  ;  and 
the  navigation  of  Lake  Michigan  was  thrown  open  to  Canada. 
By  the  provisions  of  the  treaty,  it  was  to  continue  in  force  for 
ten  years  from  March,  1855,  and  was  then  terminable  on  twelve 
months'  notice  from  either  party. 

To  the  agricultural  population  of  Canada,  the  treaty  was 
attended  with  immense  advantage,  and  gave  an  important 
stimulus  to  every  branch  of  productive  industry.  The  mari- 
time provinces,  however,  complained  that  the  United  States  had 
nothing  to  exchange  comparable  with  the  valuable  fisheries  of 
their  waters ;  and  that  while  American  shipping  was  admitted 
to  the  same  privileges  as  that  of  Great  Britain,  yet  colonial 
vessels  were  refused  registration  in  the  ports  of  the  United 
States  or  a  share  of  the  coasting-trade. 


424  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

Parliament  did  not  meet  till  the  13tli  of  June,*  instead  of,  as 
usual,  in  the  more  convenient  season  of  midwinter,  which  cir- 
cumstance was  made  the  sul)ject  of  adverse  comment.  But  as 
Lord  Elgin  and  Mr.  Hincks  had  both  been  in  England  for 
several  months,  engaged  in  the  service  of  the  country,  their 
absence  was  pleaded  as  an  excuse  for  the  unusual  delay.  A 
more  serious  charge  against  the  Government  was,  that  when 
Parliament  did  meet,  not  a  word  was  said  in  the  speech  from 
the  throne  about  either  of  those  important  themes  —  the  clergy 
reserves  or  the  seigneurial  tenure.  The  intention  of  the 
Government  was  to  limit  the  business  of  the  session  to  the 
legislation  required  to  give  effect  to  the  Reciprocity  Treaty,  and 
to  bring  into  operation  the  Act  extending  the  franchise  ^vhich  had 
previously  passed,  but  which  did  not  take  effect  till  the  follow- 
ing year.  It  w^as  deemed  proper  by  the  ministry,  in  accordance 
with  constitutional  usage,  not  to  legislate  on  the  important 
topics  which  were  agitating  the  pul)lic  mind  in  an  expiring 
House,  which  had  been  pronounced  an  inadequate  representation 
of  the  people.  The  Oi^position,  led  by  Sir  Allan  McNab  and 
Mr.  John  A.  Macdonald,  determined,  if  possible,  to  defeat  the 
ministry  on  the  address  in  reply  to  the  Governor's  speech.  Mr. 
Cauchon  moved  an  amendment,  expressing  censure  of  the  Gov- 
ernment for  the  delay  in  the  settlement  of  the  seigneurial  tenure 
and  clergy  reserve  questions ;  and  the  ministers  found  them- 
selves beaten  by  a  majority  of  thirteen,  in  a  House  of  seventy- 
one,  June  21.  The  defeated  ministry,  in  the  hope  of  increasing 
their  following,  resolved  to  appeal  to  the  country,  and  the  fol- 
lowing day  Lord  Elgin  came  down  in  state  and  prorogued  the 
House,  with  a  view  to  its  immediate  dissolution,  although  not  a 
single  bill  had  been  passed. 

The  dissolution  of  parliament  was  soon  proclaimed,  and  writs 
were  issued  for  a  new  election.  The  premier,  Mr.  Ilincks,  was 
returned  for  two  constituencies  —  Renfrew  and  South  Oxford  ; 


*  During  tlie  recess,  the  old  parliament  building  at  Quebec  was  destroyed 
by  fire,  and  war  against  Russia  was  declared.  The  latter  event  conspicuously 
demonstrated  the  enthusiastic  loyalty  of  Canada  to  the  mother  country. 


IMPORTANT  LEGISLATION.  425 

but  Mr.  Brown  was  elected  member  for  Lambton  by  a  large 
majority  over  Mr.  Malcolm  Cameron,  the  Postmaster-General, 

The  Eeform  party  was  now  openly  divided,  and  the  leading 
Eeform  papers,  as  the  "  Globe,"  *'  Examiner,"  *'  North  Ameri- 
can," and  "  Mackenzie's  Message,"  strove  vigorously  to  lessen 
the  strength  of  the  ministry.  On  the  assembling  of  the  new 
parliament,  September  5,  it  was  evident  that  they  had  suc- 
ceeded. Mr.  George  Etienne  Cartier,  the  ministerial  candidate 
for  Speaker,  was  defeated  by  a  union  of  the  Conservative 
Opposition  and  the  extreme  Reformers.  The  breach  in  the 
once  solid  Eeform  phalanx  was  now  complete. 

The  ministry  still  hoped  that  their  liberal  programme  of 
legislation  for  the  session,  including  a  proposition  to  make  the 
Upper  House  elective,  and,  at  length,  to  deal  with  the 
seigneurial  tenure  and  clergy  reserve  questions,  would  prolong 
their  term  of  office.  They  were,  however,  destined  to  dis- 
appointment. 

On  the  opening  of  parliament,  a  question  of  privilege  arose. 
The  Attorney-General  for  Lower  Canada  requested  twenty-four 
hours  for  consideration.  The  House  refused  the  request,  Dr. 
Eolph,  a  member  of  the  ministry,  voting  with  the  Opposition. 
Mr.  Hincks  and  his  colleagues  had  now  no  alternative  but  to 
resign.  Their  parliamentary  influence,  however,  was  still 
greater  than  that  of  either  of  the  parties  opposed  to  them 
separately,  by  the  combination  of  which  they  were  thrust  from 
power. 

When  Sir  Allan  McNab  was  called  on  to  form  a  new  ministry, 
he  made  overtures  to  the  members  of  the  defeated  administra- 
tion for  the  formation  of  a  coalition  Government,  on  the  basis 
of  the  policy  already  announced  in  the  speech  from  the  throne. 
The  carrying  out  of  this  policy  the  country  demanded,  and  no 
Government  w^hich  refused  it  could  hope  for  popular  support. 
The  new  ministry  included  among  its  members  Sir  Allan 
McNab,  President  of  the  Council ;  Mr.  John  A.  Macdonald, 
Mr.  AVilliam  Cayley,  Mr.  Eobert  Spence,  and  Mr.  Chauveau ; 
and  represented  both  the  Conservative  and  Eeform  elements  of 
the  House.     Many  supporters  of  the  old  administration,  how- 

54 


426  HISTORY  OF  C AX  AD  A. 

ever,  went  into  opposition,  together  with  the  extreme  Eeform- 
ers,  by  whose  aid  it  had  been  overthrown. 

The  new  ministers  had,  of  course,  to  return  to  their  con- 
stituencies for  re-election.  They  were  strongly  opposed  by 
extreme  politicians  of  both  parties,  but  were  all  returned  to 
parliament.  On  the  resumption  of  their  seats,  the  position  of 
parties  may  be  briefly  described  as  follows  :  — 

The  Conservative  parties  of  Upper  and  Lower  Canada,  which 
had  previously  been  separated  by  local  differences,  were  now 
consolidated  under  the  joint  leadership  of  Sir  Allan  McNab  and 
Mr.  Morin,  and  were  re-enforced  by  a  considerable  section  of 
the  Reform  party,  led  by  Mr.  Hincks.  The  Opposition  con- 
sisted of  a  remnant  of  the  old  ministerial  I3arty,  led  by  Mr. 
John  Sandfield  Macdonald ;  the  Rouges,  or  Liberal  party,  of 
Lower  Canada,  under  the  leadership  of  Mr.  Dorion,  and  the 
extreme  Reformers,  popularly  known  as  "  Clear  Grits,"  who 
regarded  Mr.  Brown  as  their  chief,  and  the  "  Globe,"  news- 
paper, now  become  a  powerful  political  organ,  as  the  exponent 
of  their  opinions. 

The  policy  of  the  Government,  however,  included  measures 
for  which  the  Reform  party  had  long  contended.  Prominent 
among  these  was  one  for  the  secularization  of  the  clergy  re- 
serves. A  bill  was  therefore  promptly  brought  forward  for 
that  purpose.  By  the  bill  previously  introduced  by  the  Draper 
administration  for  the  settlement  of  this  question,  the  vast 
revenue  arising  from  these  reserves,  at  first  claimed  exclusively 
for  the  Church  of  England,  was  proposed  to  be  divided  with 
the  Church  of  Scotland  and  other  denominations,  in  proportion 
to  their  private  contributions  to  the  support  of  their  clergy. 
But  the  principle  of  the  voluntary  support  of  the  ministry  by 
the  people,  which  had  led  to  the  Free  Church  secession  in  Scot- 
land in  1843,  and  which  had  been  previously  held  by  other 
dissenting  bodies,  was  widely  prevalent  throughout  Canada. 
The  ministry,  therefore,  although  many  of  their  supporters 
were  opposed  to  the  principle,  were  forced  to  yield  to  the 
popular  demand.  The  clergy  reserve  lands,  originally  amount- 
ing to  one-seventh  of  all  the  crown  territory  of  the  province, 


IMPORTANT  LEGISLATION.  427 

were  consequently  handed  over  to  the  various  municipal  cor- 
porations in  proportion  to  their  population,  to  be  employed  for 
secular  purposes.  The  life-interests  of  the  existing  incumbents 
were  commuted,  with  the  consent  of  the  holders,  for  a  small 
permanent  endowment,  and  this  long-vexed  question  was 
settled  forever ;  the  princijile  of  the  perfect  religious  equality 
of  all  denominations,  in  the  eye  of  the  law,  had  finally 
triumphed. 

The  other  "  burning  question,"  which  urgently  demanded 
legislation,  related  exclusively  to  Lower  Canada.  This  was  the 
system  of  seigneurial  tenure,  whose  vexatious  conditions 
greatly  retarded  the  progress  of  the  country.  This  system  was 
a  legacy  from  the  old  French  regime.  Much  of  the  land  of 
New  France  had  been  granted  to  scions  of  noble  houses  under 
the  feudal  conditions,  obtaining  in  the  Old  World,  as  previously 
described.*  It  was  chiefly  when  the  population  became  more 
dense  and  the  transfers  of  property  more  frequent,  that  these 
conditions  became  oppressively  felt,  especially  that  requiring 
the  payment  of  one-twelfth  of  the  purchase  price  of  the  land  to 
the  seigneur  at  every  sale,  and  the  vexatious  milling  and  fishing 
dues,  and  other  conditions  of  vassalage  imposed  on  the  tenants. 
The  value  of  these  seigneurial  claims  had  greatly  increased,  and 
they  could  be  equitably  abolished  only  by  a  commutation  from 
the  public  funds  of  the  province,  supplemented  by  certain  pay- 
ments of  the  censitaireSy  or  small  land-holders,  in  consideration 
of  the  exemptions  about  to  be  granted  them.  The  entire 
expenditure  under  the  authority  of  this  Act  was  a  little  over 
two  and  a  half  million  dollars.  Thus  was  abolished,  without 
violence  or  revolution  as  in  other  lands,  the  last  vestige  of  the 
feudal  system  in  the  New  World. 

Measures  were  also  adopted  by  the  Government  for  the  en- 
couragement of  immigration ;  quarantine  stations  and  hospitals 
were  established,  and  agents  appointed  for  furnishing  authentic 
information,  obtaining  land  grants,  and  generally  assisting 
immigrants  on  their  arrival  on  our  shores. 

*  See  pages  120-122. 


428  BISTORT  OF  CANADA. 

The  Canada  Ocean  Steamship  Company  was  also  incorporated 
by  Act  of  Parliament,  and  was  aided  by  a  subsidy  of  $1,800,- 
000.  From  this  beginning  has  grown  one  of  the  largest  steam 
fleets  that  plough  the  ocean.  Direct  trade  with  Great  Britain 
has  been  greatly  stimulated,  and  the  city  of  Montreal  has  been 
made  one  of  the  great  seaports  of  the  world. 

On  the  18th  of  December,  parliament  adjourned,  and  the 
following  day.  Lord  Elgin  resigned  the  Governor-Generalship 
of  the  province.  He  had  won  the  lasting  esteem  and  admira- 
tion of  a  people  who  had  been  largely  alienated  in  sympathy 
from  his  administration.  He  subsequently  employed  his  dis- 
tinguished abilities  in  the  service  of  his  sovereign,  in  the 
discharge  of  difficult  and  important  missions  in  China  and 
Japan.  As  the  highest  gift  of  the  crown,  he  received,  in  1862, 
the  appointment  of  Governor-General  of  India  ;  and  the  follow- 
ing year,  worn  out  with  excessive  labours,  he  died  beneath  the 
shadows  of  the  Himalayas,  leaving  behind  him  the  blameless 
reputation  of  a  Christian  statesman. 

Mr.  Hincks  also  retired  from  Canadian  public  life.  He  re- 
turned to  England,  and  received  the  appointment  of  Governor- 
in-Chief  of  the  Windward  West  India  Islands.  After  serving 
in  the  Barbadoes  for  the  full  term  of  six  years,  he  was  promoted 
to  the  Government  of  British  Guiana,  where  he  remained  till 
1869.  In  recognition  of  his  distinguished  public  services,  he 
received  the  honour  of  knighthood.  He  subsequently  returned 
to  Canada,  and,  as  we  shall  see,  entered  again  into  public  life. 

The  gallant  struggle  of  the  allied  armies  against  the  hosts  of 
Russia,  now  in  progress,  evoked  the  enthusiastic  loyalty  of  both 
Canadas.  England,  in  conjunction  with  France  and  Turkey, 
felt  constrained  to  oppose  the  Russian  invasion  of  the  Danubian 
principalities,  and  the  forcing  of  a  humiliating  treaty  on  the 
Sultan  of  the  Ottoman  Empire.  The  glorious  but  dear-brought 
victory  of  the  Alma  became  the  occasion  for  the  practical 
expression  of  Canadian  sympathy  in  the  grant  of  £20,000  for 
the  benefit  of  the  widows  and  orphans  of  the  fallen  heroes  of 
those  gory  slopes,  dyed  with  the  best  blood  of  three  allied 
nations. 


IMPORTANT  LEGISLATION.  429 

The  invading  armies  now  undertook  the  siege  of  Sebastopol, 
which  had  been  enormously  strengthened,  and  made  one  of  the 
most  formidable  fortifications  in  the  world.  But  the  frosts  and 
snows  of  winter  proved  more  terrible  than  the  Russian  sword. 
Disease,  exposure,  and  toil  in  the  trenches,  wasted  the  allied 
armies  to  a  frightful  extent.  The  Aberdeen  ministry,  under 
which  gross  military  mismanagement  and  neglect  occurred,  was 
compelled  to  resign,  and  Lord  Palmerston  was  summoned  to 
the  helm  of  state.  The  flower  of  the  English  army  perished  in 
this  disastrous  siege,  with  its  frequent  sorties  and  battles  ;  and 
many  a  British  home  was  called  to  mourn  the  appalling  desola- 
tions caused  by  the  Crimean  War. 


430  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 


CHAPTER   XXXV. 

THE    COALITION    MINISTEY. 

Sir  Edmund  Walker  Head,  Governor-General,  1855  —  Militia  Organization  — 
Financial  Prosperity  —  The  Corrigan  Trial  —  Mr.  John  A.  Macdonald, 
Premier,  1856  —  The  Legislative  Council  made  Elective  —  Its  Constitution 
—  Chinese  War  and  Indian  Mutiny  —  Commercial  Crisis,  1857  —  General 
Election,  1858  —  Reform  Majority  in  Upp»r  Canada  —  Demand  for  "Repre- 
sentation by  Population"  —  Sketch  of  Mr.  George  Brown's  Career  and 
Character. 

SIR  Edmund  Walker  Head,  the  successor  of  Lord  Elgin  as 
Governor-General  of  Canada,  was  a  gentleman  of  dis- 
1855.  tinguished  scholarship,  a  prizeman  and  fellow  of  Oriel 
College,  Oxford,  a  linguist  of  remarkable  attainments  and  an 
admirable  connoisseur  and  art-critic.  As  a  writer,  he  distin- 
guished himself  by  fine  taste  and  scholarship,  and  in  public 
life  he  manifested  considerable  administrative  ability.  His  first 
diplomatic  appointment  was  that  of  Governor  of  New  Bruns- 
wick, from  which  he  was  promoted  to  the  position  of  Governor- 
General  of  British  North  America. 

In  the  coalition  ministry,  during  recess,  Messrs.  Cauchon, 
Cartier,  and  Lemieux,  succeeded  Messrs.  Morin,  Chauveau, 
and  Chabot.  The  large  and  solid  majority  of  the  ministry 
exempted  it  from  the  effects  of  party  skirmishing,  and  from 
the  necessity  of  strategic  tactics.  A  large  amount  of  impor- 
tant legislation,  represented  by  no  less  than  two  hundred  and 
fifty-one  bills,  was  transacted.  Prominent  among  these  was  a 
new  Militia  Act,  which  provided  for  the  organization  of  effi- 
ciently equipped  and  officered  volunteer  corps.  As  a  result  of 
this  Act»  the  previously  existing  paper  army  of  sedentary 
militia  gave  place  to  the  gallant  citizen  soldiery  which  at 
Ridgeway  and  Freligshburg  protected  our  frontier  with  their 
lives  and  blood. 


THE  COALITION  MINISTRY.  431 

During  the  winter  the  tragic  tale  of  siege  and  sortie,  of  frost 
and  fire,  of  sickness  and  suffering,  and  death  in  the  hospitals, 
camps  and  trenches  before  Sebastopol,  thrilled  the  souls  of 
British  patriots  around  the  world,  and  nowhere  more  than 
throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  Canada.  In  almost  every 
town  and  hamlet  generous  donations  were  contributed  to  the 
nation's  heroes,  who  so  gallantly  maintained  her  name  and  fame 
on  a  foreign  shore.  The  illustrious  victories  of  Balaclava, 
Inkerman,  and  Sebastopol,  became  memories  of  imperishable 
power,  and  kindled  beacon-fires  of  joy  throughout  the  land, 
from  the  rock-built  citadel  of  Quebec  to  the  remote  villages  on 
the  shores  of  Lake  Huron. 

The  financial  prosperity  of  Canada  after  the  emancipation  of 
her  trade,  in  1849,  was  very  great.  In  1854,  the  customs 
duties,  at  the  average  rate  of  twelve  per  cent.,  had  amounted 
to  nearly  five  millions,  and  the  total  public  revenue  to  over 
six  millions,  while  the  expenditure  was  only  a  little  over  four 
millions.  The  railway  legislation  had,  however,  added  twenty- 
one  millions  to  the  public  debt,  which,  in  the  year  1855,  had 
risen  to  the  verge  of  thirty-nine  millions. 

The  seat  of  government  was  again  removed  to  Toronto, 
where  parliament  was  opened  on  the  15th  of  February.  i856. 
The  speech  from  the  throne  announced  that  a  large  amount  of 
money  accruing  from  clergy  reserve  lands  was  awaiting  dis- 
bursement among  the  municipalities  ;  that  the  contract  had 
been  closed  for  the  establishment  of  the  Canadian  transatlantic 
steamship  line ;  and  that  certain  legislative  reforms  would  be 
brought  under  the  notice  of  the  House,  including  the  old  con- 
stitutional question  of  an  elective  Legislative  Council.  It  also 
congratulated  the  country  on  the  peace  and  prosperity  which  it 
enjoyed,  while  other  portions  of  the  world  were  racked  with 
the  throes  of  war. 

The  debate  on  the  address  was  keen  and  acrimonious.  The 
address,  however,  was  carried  by  a  considerable  majority;  yet 
the  increased  strength  of  the  Opposition  indicated  the  waning 
influence  of  the  administration  of  Sir  Allan  McNab.     The  min- 


432 


BISTORT  OF  CANADA. 


istry  soon  found  themselves  in  a  minority  on  a  question  which 
excited  a  good  deal  of  religious  rancour  in  the  House,  and  in 
the  country.  A  man  named  Corrigan  had  been  murdered  near 
St.  Sylvester,  in  Lower  Canada.  Several  men  were  tried 
before  Judge  Duval,  at  Quebec,  for  the  crime,  and  were 
acquitted  in  the  face  of  what  was  by  many  considered  very 
conclusive  evidence  of  their  guilt.  The  fact  that  the  judge, 
jury,  and  accused,  were  all  Roman  Catholics,  while  the  mur- 
dered man  was  Protestant,  together  with  the  positive  charac- 
ter of  the  evidence,  created  an  impression  in  the  minds  of 
many  Protestants  of  a  miscarriage  of  justice.  The  Toronto 
<'  Globe,"  as  a  prominent  champion  of  Protestantism,  led  the 
outburst  of  indignation,  in  which  it  was  joined  by  the  Orange 
party,  a  circumstance  which,  for  the  time,  greatly  strengthened 
the  Reform  ranks. 

Early  in  the  session,  Mr.  John  Hilyard  Cameron,  a  leading 
member  of  the  Orange  fraternity,  moved  for  a  copy  of  the 
charge  delivered  to  the  jury  by  Judge  Duval.  It  was  an  em- 
barrassing position  in  which  the  ministry  was  placed.  If  they 
submitted  the  judge's  charge  to  review  in  the  House,  they 
would  alienate  and  offend  many  French-Canadian  supporters. 

If  they  refused,  they  must  ex- 
pect to  lose  many  Protestant 
votes.  Under  a  constitutional 
plea,  they  refused  to  bring 
down  the  papers  demanded,  and 
were  defeated  by  a  majority  of 
four.  They  did  not,  however, 
choose  to  consider  this  a  vote  of 
want  of  confidence,  as  on  another 
division,  the  same  night,  they 
were  sustained  by  a  majority  of 
the  House.  It  was  deemed, 
however,  expedient  to  make  a 
change  in  the  personnel  of  the  ministry,  and  Sir  Allan  McNab, 
a  man  of  solid,  but  not  shining  parts,  was  induced  to  resign 


DiR  E.  p.  TACHE. 


THE   COALITIOX  MLXISTEF.  433 

the  premiership  to  Mr.  Taehe.  *  The  real  leadership,  how- 
ever, was  assumed  by  the  Acting  Attoruey-General,  Mr.  John 
A.  Macdonald,  a  rising  politician  of  conspicuous  ability  and 
promise. 

Mr.  IMacdonald,  who  subsequently 
filled  so  prominent  a  position  in 
Canadian  politics,  was  born  in  Suther- 
landshire,  Scotland,  in  1815.  His 
parents  soon  after  removed  to  Canada, 
and  settled  in  Kingston,  Ontario.  He 
entered  upon  the  study  of  law  in  that 
city  when  only  fifteen,  and  was  ad- 
mitted to   the   bar  in    1836,    in    his 

,,       ,  Tx         ^       .  .  SIR  JOHN  A.  MACDONALD. 

twenty-first  year.  He  first  promi- 
nently attracted  public  notice  in  1839,  by  his  brilliant  defence  of 
Von  Schultz,  the  Polish  exile,  who  was  executed  with  nine 
others,  American  raiders,  captured  at  the  battle  of  Windmill 
Point.  In  1844,  he  was  elected  to  the  representation  of 
Kingston  in  the  second  parliament  of  the  United  Canadas, 
which  city  he  has  ever  since  continued  to  represent  in  the 
councils  of  his  country.  On  the  resignation  of  the  Hincks 
administration,  in  1854,  he  became  a  member  of  the  coalition 
ministry  by  which  it  was  succeeded,  and  was  now  recognized 
as  the  leader  of  the  Conservative  party  of  Upper  Canada. 
With  an  eminent  degree  of  administrative  skill,  he  combined  a 
large  amount  of  political  tact  and  sagacity.     He  is  an  able  con- 


*  The  name  of  Etienne  Paschal  Tach6  is  one  of  the  most  distinguished  in 
Canadian  annals.  He  was  born  at  St.  Thomas,  Lower  Canada,  in  1795,  and 
■was  the  descendant  of  an  old  French  family  which  had  won  an  honourable 
record  for  public  service.  During  the  war  of  1812-14,  he  served  with  distinc- 
tion in  the  field,  and  was  promoted  to  a  lieutenancy  in  the  Canadian  Chasseurs. 
After  the  war,  he  studied  medicine,  and  attained  success  in  that  profession. 
He  entered  parliament  in  1841,  and  joined  the  Baldwin-Lafontaiue  ministry  in 
1S48.  He  became,  as  we  have  seen,  head  of  the  Government  in  1856.  In 
1358,  Her  Majesty  the  Queen  conferred  upon  him  the  honour  of  knighthood,  — 
he  being  summoned  to  Windsor  Castle  to  receive  from  her  own  hands  that 
dignity.  In  1860,  he  was  appointed,  together  with  Sir  Allan  McNab,  an  hon- 
ourary  colonel  of  the  British  army,  and  aide-de-camp  to  the  Queen.  His 
further  career  will  bo  hereafter  described. 
65 


434  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

stitutional  lawyer,  and  a  remarkably  skilful  debater,  rising,  at 
times,  to  a  noble  and  impassioned  eloquence.  He  has  been, 
during  a  long  parliamentary  career,  a  great  party  leader. 
Through  his  genial  manners  he  exercises  a  remarkable  personal 
influence  over  those  with  whom  he  comes  in  contact,  amount- 
ing, sometimes,  almost  to  a  fascination. 

Under  this  Conservative  Government  was  passed  a  measure 
for  which  the  Reform  party  had  long  striven,  and  which  their 
opponents  had  resolutely  resisted.  This  was  the  Act  making 
the  Legislative  Council  an  elective  body.  Existing  members 
were  allowed  to  retain  their  seats  for  life  ;  but  twelve  members 
were  to  be  elected  biennially,  to  hold  office  for  the  term  of 
eight  years.  This  system  was  relinquished  under  the  Con- 
federation Act,  but  a  strong  feeling  is  entertained  in  favour  of 
its  restoration.  Important  measures  of  law  reform  were  also 
enacted  during  this  parliamentary  session. 

This  year  a  dreadful  railway  tragedy,  the  first  of  the  kind 
which  had  ever  happened  in  Canada,  caused  a  thrill  of  horror 
throughout  the  country.  On  the  12th  of  JMarch,  a  passenger 
train  proceeding  from  Toronto  to  Hamilton,  plunged  through  an 
open  drawbridge  in  the  Desjardins  Canal.  Seventy  persons 
w^ere  killed,  among  them  Mr.  Zimmerman,  a  leading  capitalist, 
and  some  of  our  most  prominent  citizens. 

The  following  year,  June  26,  a  still  more  terrible  disaster 
1857.  occurred  on  the  Lower  St.  Lawrence.  The  steamer 
"Montreal,"  with  two  hundred  and  fifty-eight  Scottish  emi- 
grants on  board,  took  fire  opposite  Cape  Eouge,  near  Quebec, 
and  burned  to  the  water's  edge.  Two  hundred  and  fifty  lives 
were  lost  by  this  tragedy. 

The  continuance  of  the  Chinese  war,  and  the  outbreak  of  the 
Sepoy  mutiny,  taxed  to  the  utmost  the  force  of  Britain's  arms, 
and  called  ft>rth  the  intense  sympathy  of  Her  Majesty's  Cana- 
dian subjects.  The  awful  massacre  of  Cawnpore  caused  a 
feeling  of  horror  throughout  the  Empire,  followed  by  one  of 
patriotic  exultation  on  the  heroic  relief  of  Lucknow.  The 
names  of  the  veteran  Outram,  the  gallant  Campbell,  the 
chivalric  Lawrence,  the  saintly  Havelock,  were  added  to  our 


THE  COALITION  MINISTRY.  435 

country's  bead-roll  of  immortal  memories,  to  be  to  her  sons  an 
inspiration  to  patriotism,  to  piety,  and  to  duty,  forever. 

A  comparative  failure  of  the  wheat  crop,  coincident  with  a 
depression  in  the  English  money  market,  and  a  commercial 
panic  in  the  United  States,  together  with  the  almost  total  ces- 
sation of  railway  construction,  produced  a  financial  crisis  of 
great  severity  throughout  Canada.  This  was  aggravated  by  the 
over-importing  and  rash  speculations  in  stocks  and  real  estate 
which  had  been  stimulated  by  the  abundant  expenditure  of 
money  in  railway  enterprises.  When  the  crisis  came,  many  of 
the  strongest  mercantile  houses  fell  before  it.  The  inflated 
prices  of  stocks  and  real  estate  came  tumbling  down,  and  many 
who  thought  themselves  rich  for  life  were  reduced  to  insolvency. 

The  stagnation  in  trade  caused  a  great  falling  off  in  the  pub- 
lic revenue.  The  Government  had  to  assume  the  payment  of 
the  interest  on  the  railway  advances  and  on  the  Municipal  Loan 
Fund  debt,  amounting,  respectively,  to  $800,000  and  $400,000 
annually.  The  consequence  was  a  deficit  in  the  public  balance- 
sheet  for  the  year  of  $340,000.  The  rapid  development  of  the 
natural  resources  of  the  country,  and  the  elasticity  of  public 
credit,  however,  were  such  that,  under  the  Divine  blessing, 
prosperity  soon  returned  to  crown  with  gladness  the  industry 
of  the  merchant,  the  artisan,  and  the  husbandman. 

The  country  had  at  length  grown  tired  of  the  expense  and 
inconvenience  of  the  removal  of  the  seat  of  government,  every 
four  years,  from  Quebec  to  Toronto,  or  vice  versa.  On  account 
of  local  jealousies  and  sectional  interests,  however,  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  two  provinces  could  not  agree  upon  any  per- 
manent seat  of  government.  Both  Houses  of  parliament, 
therefore,  passed  resolutions  during  the  session,  requesting  Her 
Majesty  the  Queen  to  finally  settle  the  question,  by  the  selec- 
tion of  a  site  for  the  new  capital. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  year  Mr.  Tach6  resigned  the  pre- 
miership and  was  succeeded  by  Mr.  Macdonald,  who,  however, 
as  ministerial  leader  in  the  Assembly,  had  been  the  real  head 
of  the  administration.  The  parliament  was  soon  after  dissolved, 
and  at  the  ensuing  general  election  each  political  party  strove 


436 


HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 


vigorously  to  obtain  a  parliamentary  majority.  In  Upper 
Canada  the  Eeformers  had  the  preponderance,  and  IVIr.  Brown, 
the  leader  of  the  Opposition,  was  elected  for  both  Toronto 
and  North  Oxford.  In  Lower  Canada  the  Rouges,  or  French 
Liberals,  were  decidedly  in  the  minority. 

Since  the  union  of  the  Canadas  in  1840,  successive  ministries 
had  succeeded,  for  the  most  part,  in  carrying  their  measures  by 
a  majority  from  each  province,  in  accordance  with  what  was 
known  as  the  "double-majority"  principle,  adopted  in  order 
to  prevent  either  secti®n  of  the  country  from  forcing  unpalata- 
ble legislation  on  the  other.  The  Reform  preponderance  in  the 
western  province  compelled  the  ministiy  of  ]\Ir.  John  A.  JNIac- 
donald  to  abandon  this  "  double-majority  "  jDrinciple,  if  they 
would  continue  in  office.  The  Government  measures  were 
therefore  carried  chiefly  by  a  Lower-Canadian  ministerial 
majority.  This  was  felt  by  the  Upper-Canadian  Opposition  to 
be  all  the  more  galling,  because  the  wealth  and  population,  and 
consequently  the  contributions  to  the  public  revenue,  of  the 
western  province,  had  increased  relatively  much  more  than  had 
these  elements  of  prosperity  in  eastern  Canada.     This  soon  led 

to  an  outcry  against  what  was 
designated  as  "  French  domina- 
tion ; "  and  the  persistent  advo- 
cacy of  the  principle  of  repre- 
sentation by  population  was 
adopted  by  the  Reform  leaders 
of  Upper  Canada. 

The  most  conspicuous  and  in- 
fluential advocate  of  this  jDnnci- 
ple  was  Mr.  George  Brown,  the 
editor  of  the  Toronto  "  Globe," 
a  gentleman  who,  though  sel- 
dom holding  office,  has  largely 
contributed  to  the  moulding  of 
the  institutions  and  political 
destiny  of  his  adopted  country.  Mr.  Brown,  like  many  of  the 
public  men  of  Canada,  was  a  native  of  Scotland,  having  been 


HON.  GEOllGE  BIIOWX. 


THE  COALITION  MINISTRY.  437 

born  ill  the  city  of  Edinburgh  iu  1821.  When  he  was  in  his 
seventeenth  year,  the  family  emigrated  to  New  York.  Here  his 
father,  Mr.  Peter  Brown,  a  gentleman  of  superior  abilities  and 
cultivated  literary  tastes,  entered  into  mercantile  pursuits.  He 
subsequently  established  a  weekly  journal,  the  "  British  Chron- 
icle," in  whose  columns  and  in  a  volume  of  essays,  he  defended 
the  honour  of  Great  Britain  against  hostile  American  criticism. 

In  1843  the  family  removed  to  Toronto,  and  the  following 
year  Mr.  George  Brown  became  the  publisher  of  the  "  Globe" 
newspaper,  which,  under  his  vigorous  management,  has  become 
one  of  the  most  successful  journalistic  enterprises  of  Canada. 

Mr.  Brown's  first  public  employment  was  in  1849,  when,  as 
Government  commissioner  under  the  Baldwin-Lafontaine  ad- 
ministration, he  investigated  the  condition  of  the  Provincial 
Penitentiary,  and  procured  the  rectification  of  its  internal  man- 
agement. In  1851  Mr.  Brown  was  elected  to  the  representa- 
tion of  the  county  of  Kent  in  the  parliament  of  Canada ;  and 
from  that  time  to  his  retirement  from  active  public  life,  subse- 
quent to  the  confederation  of  the  British  North  American 
provinces,  he  occupied  a  conspicuous  place  and  exerted  a 
powerful  influence  in  the  councils  of  the  country.  As  a  sj)eaker 
he  was  master  of  a  robust  and  courageous  eloquence.  As  a 
writer  he  cultivated  strength  rather  than  elegance  of  style. 
Through  the  medium  of  the  journal  under  his  control,  he  has 
contributed  in  no  inconsiderable  degree  to  mould  the  public 
opinion  and  influence  the  political  destiny  of  Canada. 

Mr.  Brown  resembled,  in  something  more  than  nationality, 
those  active  politicians,  his  fellow-countrymen,  Robert  Gourlay 
and  William  Lyon  Mackenzie.  He  possessed  the  same  inde- 
fatigable energy,  the  same  keenness  in  detecting  and  vigour 
in  denouncing  abuses,  and  the  same  tenacity  of  purpose,  which 
enabled  him  to  battle  for  years  against  formidable  opposition 
for  the  achievement  of  cherished  designs.  He  was,  however, 
of  superior  intellectual  ability  to  either  of  those  sturdy  pioneers' 
in  the  rugged  path  of  political  reform.  Unlike  the  impetuous 
and  often  reckless  Mackenzie,  he  possessed  the  sound  judgment 
which  enabled  him  to  confine  his  efibrts  within  constitutional 


438  HISTORY   OF  CAXADA. 

limits,  aud,  more  fortunate  than  either  of  them,  he  was  per- 
mitted to  witness,  in  the  confederation  of  British  power  on  this 
continent,  the  inauguration  of  an  era  of  increased  prosperity 
and  progress  of  his  country,  to  the  attainment  of  which  he  had 
the  happiness,  in  large  degree,  to  contribute. 


REPRESENTATION  BY  rOPULATION.  439 


CHAPTER    XXXVI. 

"EEPKESENTATION    BY    POPULATION." 

The  Ne-w  Parliament,  1858  —  Thomas  D'Arcy  McGee  —  The  Queen  selects 
Ottawa  as  the  Permanent  Capital  —  The  Opposition  Disapprove  her  Choice 
—  A  False  Move  —  The  Ministry  Resign,  and  Mr.  Brown  forms  a  Cabinet  — 
He  is  Defeated,  and  Resigns  after  Two  Days'  Tenure  of  Office  —  Hon.  A.  T. 
Gait  —  The  Cartier-Macdonald  Ministry  Formed  —  The  "Double-Shuffle"  — 
Law  Reforms  —  Financial  Prosperity,  1859  —  Parliament  Meets  at  Quebec, 
1S60  —  Visit  of  the  Prince  of  Wales  —  Victoria  Bridge  —  The  Party  Emblems 
contrefenqjs  —  Outbreak  of  War  of  Secession,  1861  —  Increase  of  Canadian 
Population  —  Retirement  of  Sir  Edmund  Walker  Head. 

THE  general  elections,  after  the  dissolution  of  1857,  were 
held  in  midwinter,  and  the  most  strenuous  efforts  were 
made  by  the  rival  parties  to  gain  a  parliamentary  ma-  i858. 
jority.  Earely  has  political  excitement  been  so  intense.  Mr. 
Brown,  as  we  have  seen,  enjoyed  the  triumph  of  a  double  re- 
turn, —  for  Toronto,  and  for  the  North  Riding  of  Oxford.  His 
political  allies  in  Lower  Canada,  largely  on  account  of  his 
intense  Protestantism  provoking  the  hostility  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  party  in  that  province,  were  badly  beaten  at  the  polls. 
The  new  parliament  met  in  Toronto,  February  28.  Among  its 
many  new  members  was  Thomas  D'Arcy  McGee,  a  former 
enthusiastic  Irish  patriot,  and  partner  in  the  seditious  schemes 
of  the  insurrectionary  leaders,  Mitchel  and  Meagher,  now 
returned  as  the  loyal  representative  of  West  Montreal.  The 
strength  of  parties  was  first  measured  in  the  choice  of  Speaker. 
The  ministerial  candidate  was  elected  by  seventy-nine  against 
forty-two  votes.  The  debate  on  the  address  was  long  and 
acrimonious.  The  Opposition,  led  by  Mr.  Brown,  vigorously 
assailed  the  ministry,  and  strongly  pressed  the  question  of 
representation  by  population.  It  was,  however,  defeated  by  a 
vote  of  sixty-four  to  fifty-two. 

The  question  of  the  seat  of  government,  we  have  seen,  had 
been  referred  for  final   decision  to  Her  Majesty  the   Queen. 


440  BISTORT  OF  CANADA. 

That  decision  was  now  given  in  favour  of  Ottawa.  There  was 
much  to  commend  this  choice.  The  position  was  remote  from 
the  American  frontier.  It  was  picturesquely  situated  on  one  of 
the  great  waterways  of  the  country,  which  formed  the  dividing 
line  between  the  two  provinces.  It  also  occupied  an  important 
strategic  military  position,  and  one  of  great  strength  and 
security  in  case  of  invasion.  The.  disappointment,  however, 
of  several  Canadian  cities,  which  had  aspired  to  the  dignity  of 
becoming  the  capital,  caused  considerable  dissatisfaction  in 
their  respective  neighbourhoods.  Taking  advantage  of  this 
feeling,  the  Opposition  brought  forward  a  resolution  expressing 
deep  regret  at  Her  Majesty's  choice,  which  was  carried,  on  the 
28th  of  July,  by  a  majority  of  fourteen.  It  was  a  false  move, 
and  placed  the  Opposition  in  apparent  antagonism  to  the 
sovereign.  The  ministry,  identifying  their  cause  with  hers, 
promptly  resigned,  and  immediately  won  a  large  amount  of 
public  sympathy. 

Mr.  Brown,  as  leader  of  the  Opposition,  was  invited  by  the 
Governor-General  to  form  a  cabinet,  and  acceded  to  the 
request.  The  new  ministry,  although  containing  several  gen- 
tlemen held  in  the  highest  esteem  for  ability  and  intelligence,  * 
failed  to  command  a  majority  of  the  House.  Many  of  the 
members  repented  their  rash  vote  against  the  Queen's  decision, 
and,  by  a  division  of  seventy-one  to  thirty-one,  the  ministry 
was  defeated.  Mr.  Brown  requested  a  dissolution  of  parlia- 
ment, in  order  that  he  might  appeal  to  the  country  ;  but  this 
His  Excellency  declined  to  grant,  alleging  that  the  House, 
being  newly  elected,  must  reflect  the  popular  will.  The  min- 
istry, therefore,  resigned,  after  a  tenure  of  office  of  only  two 
days.  The  action  of  the  Governor-General,  however,  gave 
serious  umbrage  to  a  large  section  of  the  Reform  party,  and  his 
subsequent  course  was  subject  to  much  adverse  criticism. 

Sir  Edmund  Head  now  invited  Mr.  Alexander  T.  Gait  to 


*  Its  members  were :  Messrs.  George  Brown,  James  Morris,  Michael  Foley, 
Jolin  Sandfield  Macdonakl,  Oliver  Mowat,  and  Dr.  Conner,  for  Upper  Canada; 
and,  for  Lower  Canada,  Messrs.  Dorion,  Drummond,  Thibaudeau,  Lemieux, 
Holton,  and  Laberge. 


REPRESENTATION  BY  POPULATION.  44X 

form  a  ministry.  This  gentleman's  eminent  abilities,  and  dis- 
tinguished career  as  Finance  Minister  of  Canada,  demand  a 
short  sketch  of  his  personal  history.  He  was  the  son  of  John 
Gait,  Esq.,  of  Ayrshire,  Scotland,  the  friend  and  biographer 
of  Byron,  and  the  author  of  many  popular  novels  and  other 
works.  In  1826,  Mr.  Gait,  senior,  came  to  Canada  as  com- 
missioner of  the  Canada  Land  Company.  He  remained  in  the 
country  three  years,  founded  the  town  of  Guelph,  and  from 
him  the  town  of  Gait  takes  its  name.  In  1833,  his  son  Alex- 
ander entered,  as  a  junior  clerk, 
the  service  of  the  British  Ameri- 
can Land  Company,  in  the  East- 
ern Townships,  being  then  a 
youth  in  his  sixteenth  year.  His 
business  talents  and  fidelity  led 
to  his  rapid  promotion  till  he  be- 
came chief  commissioner  of  the 
company.  Mr.  Gait  entered  par- 
liament in  1849,  and,  with  slight 
intervals,  has  ever  since  occupied 
a   prominent   position  in  public 

,.j,  TT-  T        •     J.  -1.  SIRA.  T.  GAXT. 

liie.       His     personal     integrity, 

financial  ability,  and  moderation  of  character,  commanded  the 
respect  and  confidence  of  the  House.  But  that  very  moderation 
rather  disqualified  him  from  becoming  a  party  leader,  and  he 
declined  the  profiered  honour.  Mr.  George  E.  Cartier  was 
now  invited  to  construct  a  cabinet.  This,  with  the  aid  of 'Mr. 
John  A.  Macdonald,  he  succeeded  in  doing.  * 

The  new  premier  was  a  lineal  descendant  of  the  nephews  of 
the  illustrious  discoverer  of  Canada,  whose  name  he  bears. 
He  was  born  in  1814,  at  St.  Antoine,  on  the  Chambly  Eiver, 
that  parish  having  been  for  generations  the  residence  of  the 
Cartier  family.  He  was  educated  at  the  Sulpitian  College  at 
Montreal,  and,  in  1835,  began  the  practice  of  law  in  that  city. 

*  It  contained  Messrs.  John  A.  Macdonald,  John  Ross,  P.  Vankoughnet,  G. 
Sherwood,  and  Sidney  Smith,  for  Upper  Canada;  and  Messrs.  Cartier,  Gait, 
Rose,  Belleau,  Sicotte,  and  AUeyn,  for  Lower  Canada. 
55 


442  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

He  soon  rose  to  eminence  in  his  profession,  and,  in  1848, 
entered  iDarlicameut  as  the  member  for  Vercheres,  his  native 
county.  In  1856,  he  became  Pro- 
vincial Secretary  in  the  McNab- 
Tach^  ministry,  and,  the  same  year, 
Attorney-General  for  Lower  Canada 
in  the  Tache-Macdonald  ministry. 
In  November,  1857,  he  became  the 
leader  of  the  Lower-Canadian  section 
of  the  Government,  of  which  Mr. 
J.  A.  Macdonald  was  premier,  — 
known  as  the  Macdonald-Cartier 
ministry.  The  events  of  August, 
SIR  GEORGE  E.  cARTiER.        jg^g^  ^^^^^^  ^  trauspositiou  of  thcse 

names,  and  the  formation  of  the  Cartier-Macdonald  ministry. 
Mr.  Cartier  was  a  man  of  indefatigable  industry  and  energy. 
He  was  an  admirable  speaker  in  both  French  and  English,  a 
man  of  unimpeachable  integrity,  and  a  successful  party  leader, 
commanding  the  confidence  of  an  immense  majority  of  his 
French-Canadian  fellow-countrymen. 

On  the  formation  of  the  new  ministry,  a  circumstance  oc- 
curred which  became  the  occasion  of  an  outburst  of  condemna- 
tion from  the  Ecform  party.  A  clause  in  the  Inde2:)endence  of 
Parliament  Act  provided  that  a  minister  resigning  any  office 
might,  within  a  month,  accept  another  without  going  back  to 
his  constituents  for  re-election.  Several  members  of  the  late 
Macdonald  administration  who  entered  the  new  cabinet  took 
advantage  of  this  Act  by  a  simple  exchange  of  departmental 
office.  This  action  was  strenuously  denounced  by  the  Eeform 
press,  under  the  designation  of  the  "  double  shuffle."  It  was, 
however,  on  an  appeal  to  the  courts,  sustained  by  law  ;  but  the 
obnoxious  clause  of  the  Act  by  which  it  was  rendered  valid  was 
shortly  after  rescinded. 

Among  the  legislative  measures  of  the  session  were  acts 
raising  the  customs  duty  from  twelve  to  fifteen  per  cent.,  in- 
troducing the  decimal  system  of  currency,  and  dofiuing  the 
privileges  of  the  franchise.     During  the  summer  the  pioneer 


REPRESENTATION  BY  POPULATION.  443 

Atlantic  telegraph  cable  linked  together  in  wondrous  fellowship 
the  Old  World  and  the  New ;  but  scarcely  had  the  Queen's 
message  of  congratulation  to  the  President  of  the  United  States 
flashed  beneath  the  ocean's  bed,  when  communication  was  inter- 
rupted, and  the  permanent  union  by  the  electric  wire  of  the 
eastern  and  western  continents  was  for  some  time  longer  post- 
13oned. 

The  loyalty  of  Canada  to  the  British  throne  was  evidenced 
by  the  enthusiasm  with  which  her  sons  volunteered  for  enlist- 
ment in  the  Hundredth,  or  Prince  of  Wales  Regiment  for  the 
regular  army.  With  the  close  of  the  year  passed  away  one  of 
Canada's  purest  patriots,  the  Honourable  Eobert  Baldwin,  to 
whose  memory  the  rival  political  parties  of  the  country  vied  in 
paying  respect. 

The  legislation  of  the  parliamentary  session  which  opened  on 
January  29,  embraced  several  important  acts.  One  of  1839. 
these  referred  to  the  consolidation  of  the  statutes  of  Upper  and 
Lower  Canada,  which  was  at  length  successfully  completed,  and 
proved  of  immense  advantage  to  all  interested  in  the  transac- 
tion of  legal  business.  In  order  to  meet  the  continued  deficit 
in  the  revenue,  the  general  rate  of  customs  duties  was  increased 
to  twenty  per  cent.  ;  but  manufacturers  were  increasingly 
favoured  by  the  admission  of  raw  staples  free  of  duty.  The 
seat  of  government  question  was  finally  set  at  rest  by  the 
authorization  of  the  construction  of  parliament  buildings  of  a 
magnificent  character  at  the  selected  capital.  A  loyal  address 
to  Her  Majesty  was  cordially  voted,  conveying  a  pressing  invi- 
tation that  the  Queen  or  some  member  of  the  royal  family 
should  visit  the  country  and  formally  open  the  Victoria  Rail- 
way Bridge  at  Montreal,  which  was  now  approaching  comple- 
tion. 

The  announcement  was  made  to  parliament  by  the  Governor- 
General,  that  the  project  of  a  union  of  the  British  North  Amer- 
ican provinces  had  been  the  subject  of  a  correspondence  with 
the  Home  Government.  At  a  great  Reform  gathering  held  in 
Toronto  in  November,  resolutions  were  passed  tending  to  the 
same  result,  and  asserting  the  necessity  for  local  self-govern- 


444  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

meiit  of  the  provinces,  with  a  joint  central  authority  for  the 
management  of  common  interests. 

As  a  result  of  the  new  tariff  and  of  an  abundant  harvest,  the 
revenue  of  the  year  was  considerably  in  excess  of  the  expendi- 
ture. Over  two  thousand  miles  of  railway  were  now  in  opera- 
tion, and  were  rapidly  developing  the  resources  of  the  country. 
The  public  debt  had  increased  to  over  fifty-four  millions  ;  but 
the  whole  had  been  incurred  in  promoting  internal  improve- 
ment and  none  of  it  for  that  incubus  of  many  other  countries  — 
the  support  of  fleets  or  armies. 

In  the  neighbouring  republic  of  the  United  States  the  ap- 
proach of  the  irrepressible  conflict  between  the  hostile  forces 
of  liberty  and  slavery  was  precipitated  by  the  brave  but  futile 
invasion  of  Virginia  by  John  Brown,  for  the  liberation  of  the 
bondmen,  and  by  his  heroic  death  upon  the  scaffold. 

On  the  28th  of  February,  the  Canadian  legislature  assembled 
I860.  in  Quebec,  to  which  city  it  had  for  the  last  time  re- 
moved. A  despatch  from  the  Colonial  Secretary  announced 
that  Her  Majesty,  unable  to  leave  the  seat  of  the  empire,  Avould 
be  represented  at  the  opening  of  the  Victoria  Bridge  by  the 
Prince  of  Wales.  A  vote  of  $20,000  was  therefore  included 
in  the  estimates,  to  give  a  loyal  reception  to  the  heir-apparent 
to  the  throne. 

During  this  session  Mr.  Brown  introduced  two  important 
resolutions,  embodying  the  conclusions  of  the  Toronto  Reform 
convention  of  the  previous  year.  The  first  declared  « '  That  the 
existing  legislative  union  of  Upper  and  Lower  Canada  had  failed 
to  realize  the  anticipations  of  its  promoters  ;  that  it  had  resulted 
in  a  heavy  debt,  grave  political  abuses,  and  universal  dissatis- 
faction ;  and  that  from  the  antagonism  developed  through  dif- 
ference of  origin,  local  interest  and  other  causes,  the  union  in 
its  present  form  could  no  longer  be  continued  with  advantage 
to  the  people."  The  second  resolution  asserted  *'  That  the  true 
remedy  for  these  evils  would  be  found  in  the  formation  of  two 
or  more  local  governments,  to  which  should  be  committed  all 
matters  of  a  sectional  character,  and  the  erection  of  some  joint 
authority  to  dispose  of  the  affairs  common  to  all." 


REPRESENTATION  BY  rOPULATIOX.  445 

These  resolutions  were  rejected  by  the  House  —  the  first  by 
a  vote  of  sixty-seven  to  thirty-six ;  the  second  by  a  vote  of 
seventy-four  to  thirty-two  ;  but  the  principles  which  they  ex- 
pressed, though  scorned  at  the  time,  were  destined  to  prevail, 
and  to  become  incorporated  in  the  present  constitution  of  the 
Dominion. 

The  ministry  was  sustained  during  the  session  by  large 
majorities,  and  the  House  adjourned,  May  19,  to  meet  three 
months  later,  in  order  to  give  a  fitting  welcome  to  the  Prince 
of  A  Vales. 

Throughout  the  country  the  anticipated  visit  of  the  son  of  our 
beloved  sovereign  evoked  the  most  loyal  enthusiasm.  Every 
town  and  village  on  his  proposed  route  was  decked  in  gala 
dress.  On  July  23,  H.  M.  Ship  "  Hero,"  with  an  accompany- 
ing fleet  of  man-of-war  vessels,  bearing  the  Prince  of  Wales 
and  suite,  reached  St.  John's,  Newfoundland,  amid  the  thunder- 
ing of  cannon  and  the  loyal  cheers  of  the  people. 

The  progress  of  the  royal  party  was  a  continued  ovation. 
After  visiting  Halifax,  St.  John,  Fredericton,  and  Charlotte- 
town,  they  were  welcomed  to  Canada  by  the  Governor-General 
and  a  brilliant  suite  at  Gaspe,  August  14.  On  the  17th  the 
royal  fleet  sailed  up  the  gloomy  gorge  of  the  Saguenay,  and 
the  thunders  of  its  cannon  awoke  the  immemorial  echoes  of  the 
lofty  clifls  of  Capes  Trinity  and  Eternity.  The  following  day 
the  Prince  reached  Quebec,  and  was  profoundly  impressed  with 
the  magnificent  site  of  the  many-ramparted  and  grand  old  his- 
toric city.  After  receiving  a  loyal  address  from  both  branches 
of  the  legislature,  the  royal  progress  was  resumed. 

On  the  25th  of  the  month,  amid  the  utmost  pomp  and 
pageantry,  in  the  name  of  his  august  mother,  the  Prince  of 
Wales  drove  the  last  rivet  of  the  magnificent  bridge  that  bears 
her  name.  Bestriding  the  rapid  current  of  the  St.  Lawrence, 
here  nearly  two  miles  wide,  on  four  and  twenty  massive  piers 
—  the  centre  span  being  three  hundred  and  thirty  feet  wide 
and  sixty  feet  above  high-water  mark  —  it  is  one  of  the  grandest 
achievements  of  engineering  skill  in  the  world.  It  cost  six  and 
a  half  millions  of  dollars,  and  was  designed  and  brought  to 


446 


HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 


completion  by  a  Canadian  engineer,  Thomas  C.  Keefer,  and  the 
world-renowned  bridge  builder,  Kobert  Stephenson.     Illumina- 


\ 


tions  and  fireworks,  turning  night  into  day,  and  a  grand  carni- 
val  of  festivities,  celebrated  the  joyous  occasion. 


REPRESENTATION  BY  POPULATION.  447 

At  Ottawa,  oa  September  the  first,  amid  as  imposing  and 
picturesque  surroundiugs  as  any  on  the  continent,  was  laid  the 
corner-stone  of  the  stately  pile,  worthy  of  the  site,  which  was 
to  be  the  home  of  the  legislature  of  a  great  Dominion.  An 
overland  ride  to  Brockville,  and  a  sail  through  the  lovely 
scenery  of  the  Thousand  Islands,  brought  the  royal  party  to 
Knigston.  Through  an  unfortunate  contretemps,  —  the  exhibi- 
tion of  party  emblems  on  an  arch  erected  by  the  Orange 
society,  — the  inhabitants  of  both  Kingston  and  Belleville  were 
deprived  of  the  pleasure  of  expressing  their  loyalty  to  their 
future  sovereign.  Toronto  was  surpassed  by  no  city  in  British 
North  America  in  the  magnificence  of  its  decorations,  the 
enthusiasm  of  its  demonstration,  and  the  heartiness  of  its 
loyalty.  The  royal  progress  through  the  western  peninsula 
was  accompanied  by  no  less  cordial  exhibitions  of  loyalty  to 
the  heir  of  the  British  crown. 

At  Detroit,  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  Cincinnati,  Philadelphia, 
Baltimore,  Washington,  New  York,  and  Boston,  the  Prince  of 
Wales  received  from  a  foreign  nation  a  warmth  of  welcome 
which  proved  its  nnforgotten  chivalric  regard  toward  the  heir 
of  a  long  line  of  English  kings,  and  its  admiration  of  his  royal 
mother,  —  as  woman,  wife,  and  queen,  the  paragon  of  sover- 
eigns. On  October  29,  the  royal  party  sailed  from  Portland, 
carrying  recollections  of  the  warmest  hospitality  alike  from  a 
foreign  nation  and  from  the  sub- 
jects of  the  British  crown,  accom- 
panied, in  the  case  of  the  latter, 
by  proofs  of  the  most  devoted 
loyalty  to  the  throne  and  person 
of  the  sovereign. 

During  the  absence  of  the  Gover- 
nor-General from  Canada  on  a  visit 
to  Great  Britain,  the  government 
of  the  country  was  administered 
with  eminent  ability  by  Sir  Wil-  sir  wm.  fenwick  williams. 
liam  Fenwick  Williams  of  Kars.  The  distinguished  military 
career  of  that  officer  had  reflected  an  unfading  lustre  upon  his 


448  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

name  and  country.  He  was  born  at  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  in  1800. 
The  son  of  the  commissary-general  and  barrack-master,  he  early 
entered  military  life.  He  spent  nine  years  in  engineering  ser- 
vice in  Ceylon,  and  as  many  more  in  diplomatic  engagements 
in  Asiatic  Turkey.  During  the  Eussian  war  he  won  his  chief 
military  laurels  by  his  heroic  defence  of  Kars,  for  over  four 
months,  against  a  much  superior  Eussian  force.  Although 
victorious  in  a  sanguinary  eight  hours'  battle,  he  was  compelled 
to  surrender  by  famine  rather  than  by  the  enemy.  On  his 
return  to  England,  he  entered  parliament  for  the  borough  of 
Calne,  and,  in  1858,  became  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  forces 
in  British  North  America. 

Toward  the  close  of  the  year  the  heart  of  the  country  was 
profoundly  stirred,  not  by  homage  to  a  royal  prince,  but  by 
sympathy  for  a  fugitive  slave.  Seven  years  before,  Eobert 
Anderson,  in  making  his  escape  from  bondage  in  Missouri,  had 
slain  a  man  who  sought  to  prevent  his  flight.  After  several 
years'  residence  in  Canada,  he  was  tracked  by  the  slave-catcher, 
charged  with  murder,  and  his  extradition  demanded  under  the 
Ashburton  treaty.  Legal  opinion  was  divided  as  to  the  validity 
of  the  demand.  Intense  popular  interest  was  felt  in  the  ques- 
tion, which  found  expression  in  enthusiastic  public  meetings 
of  sympathy  for  the  hunted  fugitive.  It  was  argued  that  in 
defending  himself  against  recapture  to  bondage,  and  to  con- 
dign punishment  and  probably  a  cruel  death,  he  was  exercising 
an  inalienable  human  right.  An  appeal  was  made  to  the 
English  Court  of  Queen's  Bench ;  but  while  the  aj^peal  was 
pending,  Anderson  was  set  free  by  a  Canadian  court  on  the 
ground  of  informality  in  his  committal. 

In  the  United  States  the  war  clouds  were  lowering  which 
were  soon  to  deluge  the  country  with  blood.  The  domination 
of  the  slave-power  at  length  provoked  the  firm  resistance  of  the 
North.  Abraham  Lincoln  was  elected  as  the  tribune  of  the 
friends  of  liberty.  The  haughty  South  refused  to  bow  to  this 
expression  of  the  popular  will.  First  South  Carolina,  then 
other  States,  seceded  from  the  Union  and  organized  a  confed- 
eracy based  on  human  slavery.     With  the  close  of  the  year  a 


REPRESENTATION  BT  POPULATION.  449 

federal  force  was  besieged  in  Fort  Sumter,  guarding  Charleston 
harbour. 

The  first  shot  fired  on  the  flag  of  the  Republic  reverberated 
through  the  nation.  North  and  South  rushed  to  arms.  isei. 
A  royal  proclamation,  issued  May  13,  enjoined  strict  neutrality 
on  all  British  subjects,  and  recognized  the  belligerent  rights  of 
the  South.  Such,  however,  was  Canada's  sympathy  with  the 
North  in  this  war  for  human  freedom,  —  for  such  it  ultimately 
proved  to  be,  —  that  before  its  close  fifty  thousand  of  her  sons 
enlisted  in  the  Northern  armies,  and  many  lost  their  lives  for 
what  they  felt  to  be  a  sacred  cause,  while  comparatively  few 
entered  the  armies  of  the  South. 

At  the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  on  the  21st  of  July,  were  opened 
the  sluices  of  the  deep  torrent  of  blood  shed  in  this  fratricidal 
war.  For  four  long  years  of  the  nation's  agony,  that  gory  tide 
ebbed  and  flowed  over  those  fair  and  fertile  regions  stretching 
from  the  valley  of  the  Potomac  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  from 
the  Atlantic  to  the  Mississippi ;  carrying  sorrow  and  death  into 
almost  every  hamlet  in  the  Union,  and  into  many  a  Canadian 
home  ;  costing  a  million  of  lives  and  millions  of  treasure  ;  but, 
let  us  thank  God  !  emancipating  forever  four  millions  of  slaves. 

The  Canadian  parliament  assembled  in  Quebec  on  the  16th 
of  March.  The  speech  from  the  throne  conveyed  the  acknowl- 
edgment of  the  Queen's  high  appreciation  of  the  loyal  recep- 
tion of  the  Prince  of  Wales.  It  referred  also  to  the  fact  that 
a  writ  of  the  English  Court  of  Queen's  Bench  had  been  issued 
in  Canada,  and  urged  the  propriety  of  preventing  by  suitable 
legislation  any  conflicting  jurisdiction.  The  debate  on  the 
address  lasted  for  six  days,  and  was  the  occasion  of  a  good 
deal  of  recrimination.  The  Orangemen,  the  Freemasons,  and 
some  of  the  leading  religious  bodies  had  all  grievances  to  com- 
plain of,  in  the  form  of  real  or  imagined  slights  during  the  visit 
of  the  Prince  of  Wales.  A  motion  of  Mr.  John  Sandfield 
Macdonald's,  urging  the  adoption,  by  the  ministry,  of  the 
double-majority  principle,  was  lost  by  a  vote  of  sixty-four  to 
forty-six,  and  a  direct  motion  of  want  of  confidence  in  the 
Government  was  lost  on  division,  by  sixty-two  to  forty-nine. 


450  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

The  returns  o.  the  census  taken  at  the  close  of  the  previous 
year  revealed  a  rapid  increase  in  the  population  of  the  country. 
In  1841,  that  of  Upper  Canada  was  465,375;  in  1851,  it  was 
952,061;  in  1861,  it  had  reached  1,396,091.  The  population 
of  Lower  Canada,  in  1841,  was  690,782;  in  1851,  890,261; 
and,  in  1861,  1,110,444.  The  population  of  the  two  Canadas, 
it  will  be  seen,  amounted,  in  1861,  to  2,506,755.  The  rate  of 
increase  in  the  Upper  province  had  been  so  much  greater  than 
that  of  Lower  Canada,  that  it  now  had  an  excess  of  285,427 
over  the  population  of  the  latter,  yet  it  had  only  the  same  par- 
liamentary representation.  This  practical  injustice  lent  new 
energy  to  the  Upper-Canadian  agitation  for  representation  by 
population.  The  feeling  of  jealousy  between  the  two  sections 
of  the  province  led  to  extravagance  of  expenditure.  Although 
Upper  Canada  contributed  the  larger  part  of  the  public  reve- 
nue, the  lower  province  claimed  an  equal  share  from  the  com- 
mon treasury.  Thus  many  uuremunerative  public  works  were 
constructed  in  one  province  as  an  offset  to  an  expenditure  for 
necessary  constructions  in  the  other. 

Parliament  adjourned  on  the  1st  of  May,  and  was  soon 
afterwards  dissolved.  The  general  election  which  followed 
resulted  in  a  considerable  gain  to  the  Opposition,  especially  in 
Upper  Canada.  Mr.  Cartier,  however,  won  a  signal  victory 
by  defeating  Mr.  Dorion,  the  liberal  leader,  in  Montreal  East. 
Mr.  Brown  was  also  defeated  in  Toronto. 

During  this  year,  —  on  the  28th  of  August,  —  the  restless 
career  of  William  Lyon  Mackenzie  came  to  a  close.  He  had, 
to  a  considerable  degree,  fallen  out  of  view  of  a  generation 
familiar  only  by  report  with  the  stirring,  but  ill-guided  events 
in  which  he  bore  so  prominent  a  part. 

In  the  month  of  October,  Sir  Edmund  Walker  Head  ceased 
to  be  Governor-General  of  Canada,  and  returned  to  Great 
Britain.  With  a  considerable  section  of  the  community  his 
popularity  had  greatly  waned,  on  account  of  his  alleged  sym- 
pathy with  one  of  the  political  parties  of  the  country, — an 
allegation  which,  if  true,  was  probably  more  his  misfortune 
than  his  fault. 


POLITICAL   CRISIS.  451 


CHAPTER  XXXVn. 

POLITICAL  CRISIS. 

Lord  Monck,  Governor-General,  1861  — The  '*  Trent"  Affair— Threatened  Out- 
break of  War — Surrender  of  Slidell  and  Mason  —  The  Cartier-Macdonald 
Ministry  Defeated  on  Militia  Bill,  1862 — The  Macdonald-Sicotte  Cabinet 
Formed  —  Its  Policy  —  Commercial  Prosperity  consequent  on  American  War 
—  The  Cotton  Famine  —  Canada  at  the  World's  Fair  —  Defeat  of  the  Minis- 
try—  It  Appeals  to  the  Country,  1863  —  Reconstruction  of  the  Cabinet  — 
Political  Dead-lock. 

IT  is  a  curious  coincidence  that  two  men  evidently  of  Nor- 
man origin,  and  one  might  say,  of  the  same  name,  should 
at  an  interval  of  two  centuries,  hold  positions  of  high  command 
in  Canada,  one  the  representative  of  the  old  French  regime,  the 
other  the  representative  of  British  rule.  In  the  middle  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  Charles  Le  Moyne,  afterwards  Baron  of 
Longueuil,  was  appointed  by  Louis  XIV.  King's  Lieutenant  in 
New  France.  Two  centuries  later,  a  descendant  of  Guillaume 
Le  Moyne,  a  contemporary  of  William  of  Normandy,  conqueror 
of  England,  became  the  representative  in  Canada  of  the  authority 
of  Queen  Victoria.  Charles  Stanley  Monck,  fourth  Viscount 
of  that  name,  was  born  at  Templemore,  in  the  county  of  Tip- 
perary,  in  1818.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
and  called  to  the  Irish  bar  in  1841.  He  represented  for  some 
years  the  English  constituency  of  Portsmouth  in  the  Imperial 
parliament,  and  was  a  Lord  of  the  Treasury  under  the  Palmer- 
ston  administration.  He  was  sworn  into  office  on  the  24th  of 
October,  1861,  and  soon  had  to  face  a  grave  international  diffi- 
culty, in  which  Great  Britain  became  involved  with  the  United 
States. 

On  the  9th  of  November,  Captain  Wilkes,  of  the  U.  S.  steam- 
ship ' '  Jacinto,"  forcibly  carried  off  from  the  British  mail-steamer 
"Trent,"  Messrs.  Slidell  and  Mason,  commissioners  of  the 
Southern  Confederacy  to   Great  Britain   and  France.      The 


452  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

British  Government  promptly  resented  this  violation  of  inter- 
national comity  and  of  the  rights  of  neutrals,  and  demanded 
the  rendition  of  the  captured  commissioners.  The  foolish 
boasting  and  defiance  of  a  large  portion  of  the  American  press 
of  the  North  greatly  estranged  public  sympathy  from  their 
cause,  both  in  Canada  and  Great  Britain,  or  diverted  it  toward 
the  Southern  Confederacy,  and  rendered  an  outbreak  of  hostili- 
ties imminent. 

While  awaiting  an  answer  to  the  ultimatum  sent  to  the  United 
States,  the  British  Government  shipped  to  Canada  several  regi- 
ments of  troops,  the  flower  of  the  army,  including  the  Grena- 
dier and  Fusilier  Guards  and  the  Prince  Consort's  Eifle 
Brigade,  with  immense  stores  of  munitions  of  war.  The  navi- 
gation of  the  St.  Lawrence  having  closed,  a  portion  of  the 
troops  came  overland  through  New  Brunswick.  The  country 
sprang  to  arms.  Volunteer  military  companies  were  organ- 
ized, home  guards  enrolled,  and  large  sums  of  money  con- 
tributed to  defend,  if  need  were,  the  honour  and  dignity  of  the 
empire. 

Amid  these  public  agitations  came  the  startling  intelligence 
of  the  death  of  Prince  Albert,  the  wise  and  noble  consort  of 
our  beloved  and  honoured  Queen,  December  15.  The  nation's 
sympathy  with  the  widowed  sovereign  was  profound  and  sin- 
cere. A  prudent  counsellor,  a  loving  husband,  a  high-minded 
man,  the  Queen,  after  seventeen  years  of  widowhood,  con- 
tinues to  mourn  his  loss  with  almost  the  poignancy  of  her  first 
grief. 

With  the  close  of  the  year,  the  war-cloud  which  menaced  the 
country  was  dissipated,  by  the  surrender  of  Messrs.  Slidell 
and  Mason,  the  captured  commissioners,  to  the  British  Govern- 
ment. 

The  new  parliament  met  in  Quebec  on  the  21st  of  March. 
1868.  The  general  election  had  considerably  increased  the 
strength  of  the  Opposition,  notwithstanding  its  losses  in 
Toronto  and  Montreal.  The  conflict  of  parties  was  renewed 
with  the  utmost  vigour.  In  the  debate  on  the  address  the 
ministry  were  sustained  by  a  majority  of  seventeen.     A  sub- 


POLITICAL  CRISIS.  453 

ject  of  much  importance  was  referred  to  in  the  Governor's 
speech,  on  which,  however,  it  was  soon  to  be  defeated.  The 
defence  of  the  provinces  against  the  growing  military  power  of 
the  United  States,  was  a  subject  of  considerable  difficulty.  The 
Imperial  authorities,  feeling  that  in  case  of  the  rupture  of  peace 
Canada  would  become  the  battle-ground,  had  devised  a  com- 
prehensive sj'stem  of  fortification.  The  cost  of  the  extensive 
works  at  Quebec  was  to  be  defrayed  by  the  Home  Government, 
and  that  of  the  works  at  Montreal  and  places  west  of  it  was  to 
be  paid  from  the  provincial  treasury.  The  people  of  Canada, 
while  willing  to  make  any  effort  for  national  defence  that  they 
thought  commensurate  with  their  ability,  shrank  from  largely 
increasing  their  heavy  indebtedness  by  undertaking  military 
works  which  they  considered  too  extensive  and  costly  for  their 
means,  and  of  the  necessity  for  which  they  were  by  no  means 
convinced.  The  volunteer  movement  was  vigorously  sustained, 
and  rifle  competitions  contributed  to  the  efficiency  of  the  corps  ; 
but  the  feeling  of  the  country  in  opposition  to  the  fortification 
scheme  found  expression  in  an  adverse  vote  of  the  House  on 
the  ministerial  militia  bill,  on  the  30th  of  May. 

The  bill  was  defeated  by  a  vote  of  sixty-one  to  fifty-four. 
The  ministry  forthwith  resigned,  and  Mr.  John  Sandfield  Mac- 
donald  was  called  upon  to  form  a  new  cabinet.*  Mr.  Mac- 
donald,  with  whom  was  associated  as  leader  of  the  Lower-Can- 
adian section  of  the  new  ministerial  party  Mr.  Sicotte,  announced 
as  the  policy  of  his  administration  the  observance  of  the  double- 
majority  principle  in  all  measures  affecting  locally  either  prov- 
ince ;  a  re-adjustment  of  the  representation  of  Upper  and  Lower 
Canada,  respectively,  without,  however,  adopting  the  principle 
of  representation  by  population ;  and  an  increase  of  revenue 
and  protection  of  manufoctures  by  a  revised  customs  tariff. 
He  also  promised  retrenchment  of  public  expenditure,  vigorous 
departmental  reforms,  and  an  amended  militia  bill  instead  of 
the  one  by  which  the  late  Government  had  fallen.     This  com- 

*  The  new  ministry  waa  composed  of  Messrs.  John  Sandfield  Macdonald, 
Wilson,  Foley,  Morris,  Macdougall,  and  Howland,  for  Upper  Canada  ;  and  for 
Lower  Canada,  Messrs.  Sicotte,  Abbott,  McGee,  Dorion,  Tessier,  and  Evanturel. 


454  BISTORT  OF  CAXADA. 

prebensive  programme  to  a  largo  degree  was  received  with  pub- 
lic favour,  but  the  failure  to  assert  the  principle  of  representa- 
tion by  population  in  the  re-adjustment  of  seats,  was  vigorously 
denounced  by  the  Toronto  "  Globe." 

The  parliamentary  rejection  of  the  Macdonald-Cartier  militia 
bill  created  an  impression  in  Great  Britain  that  the  Canadians 
were  unwilling  to  bear  the  burden  of  self-defence  —  an  errone- 
ous conception,  which  the  military  enthusiasm  of  the  country 
during  the  late  "Trent"  difficulty  ought  to  have  prevented. 
The  thorough  loyalty  of  the  people  was  shown  by  the  liberal 
militia  bill  of  the  following  session. 

The  continuance  of  the  American  war  was  attended  with 
great  commercial  advantage  to  Canada.  The  prolonged  hos- 
tilities greatly  decreased  the  productive  industry  of  the  United 
States,  and  created  an  immense  drain  upon  the  national 
resources.  Canadian  horses  were  in  especial  demand  for 
remounts  for  the  Union  cavalry  and  artillery.  The  country 
was  also  denuded  of  its  surplus  live-stock  and  farm-produce, 
and,  in  fact,  of  every  marketable  commodity,  at  highly  remun- 
erative prices.  The  resulting  financial  prosperity,  in  which 
all  industrial  classes  shared,  enabled  the  people  to  discharge 
the  indebtedness  which  many  had  incurred  through  rash  specu- 
lation or  lavish  expenditure.  It  was  observed  that  "  the  pros- 
perous years  which  now  followed  were  distinguished  by  an 
unusually  small  amount  of  litigation,  while  money-lenders  no 
longer  reaped  the  abundant  harvest  they  had  hitherto  enjoyed. 
This  gratifying  condition  of  affairs,"  it  was  further  remarked, 
*'  tended  also  to  a  diminution  of  crime,  the  volume  of  which, 
however,  had  always  been  very  limited  in  the  country.  The 
war  had  already  absorbed  the  more  unquiet  spirits  of  the 
population,  and  the  ample  employment  and  high  wages  which 
prevailed  led,  in  addition,  to  light  calendars  in  the  courts  of 
justice." 

In  their  prosperity  Canadians  did  not  forget  the  adversity  of 
their  sufiering  fellow-subjects  in  Great  Britain,  who  were 
enduring  extreme  privation  from  the  cotton-famine,  consequent 
on  the  closure  of  the  ports  of  the  Southern  Confederacy,  from 


POLITICAL   CRISIS.  455 

which  the  raw  staple  of  their  industry  was  derived.  Generous 
contributions  for  the  relief  of  their  necessities  exhibited  at 
once  the  patriotism  and  philanthropy  of  the  donors. 

Canada  also  achieved  distinction  by  the  very  creditable 
exhibition  of  her  raw  material  and  manufactured  products  at 
the  World's  Fair  at  London,  where  she  carried  off,  from  all 
competitors,  numerous  prizes.  Attention  was  also  conspicu- 
ously drawn  to  the  country  as  a  profitable  field  for  investments, 
and  for  emigration,  and  to  its  vast  resources. 

Parlfament  met  in  Quebec  early  in  February,  and  the  agita- 
tion for  the  increased  representation  of  Upper  Canada  isea. 
was  renewed.  Mr.  Matthew  Crooks  Cameron  moved  an 
amendment  to  the  address  in  reply  to  the  speech  from  the 
throne,  in  favour  of  direct  representation  by  population  ;  and 
Mr.  John  Hillyard  Cameron  moved  a  resolution  in  favour  of 
giving  an  increased  representation  to  Upper  Canada  with  the 
existing  number  of  members  of  parliament.  Both  of  these 
propositions  were  defeated  by  the  solid  Lower-Canadian  vote ; 
but  public  opinion  in  Upper  Canada  was  daily  becoming 
stronger  in  favour  of  a  more  equitable  adjustment  of  the  rep- 
resentation. The  ministry  was  evidently  losing  popularity, 
and  a  large  deficit  in  the  revenue,  notwithstanding  increased 
taxation,  still  further  undermined  their  position. 

At  length,  May  1st,  Mr.  John  A.  Macdonald  moved  a  direct 
vote  of  want  of  confidence,  and,  after  a  spirited  debate  of  four 
days,  the  Government  was  defeated  by  a  vote  of  sixty-four  to 
fifty-nine.  They  resolved  to  appeal  to  the  country,  and,  on 
the  12th  of  May,  the  House  was  prorogued,  and  shortly  after 
dissolved. 

In  order  to  propitiate  the  dissatisfied  section  of  the  Reform 
party,  and  to  win  a  larger  support,  Mr.  Macdonald  recon- 
structed his  cabinet,  by  the  substitution  of  seven  new  mem- 
bers *  of  supposed  greater  popularity,  in  place  of  eight  who 

*  Messrs.  Blair,  Mo-wat,  Holton,  Laframboise,  ThibaTideau,  St.  Just  and  Hun- 
tington. Of  Lis  former  colleaguea  lie  retained  only  three,  —  Messrs.  Dorion, 
Howland,  and  Macdougall. 


456  HISTORT  OF  CANADA. 

were  superseded.     This  cabinet  is  known  as  the  IMacdonald- 

Dorion  ministry.* 

This  course  was  assailed  as  unconstitutional,  inasmuch  as  the 
Government  was  essentially  a  dif- 
ferent one  from  that  in  whose 
favour  the  dissolution  had  been 
granted.  It  therefore  brought 
him  little  accession  of  strength, 
and  converted  into  opponents 
some  of  his  former  supporters. 

The    parliament    re-assembled 
after  the  election,  on  the  13th  of 
August.     Tlie  debate  on  the  ad- 
dress   dragged    its    slow  length 
„  along  for    fourteen   davs.      The 

HON.  ANTOIXE  A.  DORION.  =^ 

ministry  had  to  meet  the  recrimi- 
nations of  its  former  members,  Messrs.  Foley,  Sicotte,  and 
McGee.  On  the  vote  being  taken,  it  was  found  that  the 
ministers  had  a  majority  of  only  three.  The  budget  for  the 
year,  as  submitted  by  Mr.  Rowland,  Finance  Minister,  was  not 
very  encouraging.  The  public  debt  had  grown  to  seventy 
million  dollars,  with  a  deficit,  since  1857,  of  twelve  millions. 
The  annual  interest  amounted  to  five  and  a  half  million  dollars. 
The  estimates  for  the  year  were  very  heavy,  amounting  to 
$15,119,200,  — of  which  $4,294,000  was  for  the  redemption  of 
seigneurial-tenure  bonds.  An  additional  revenue  of  two  mill- 
ion dollars  was  required  to  meet  the  annual  expenditure.  The 
heavy  financial  burdens  imposed  upon  the  country  under  the 
Hincks   administration,  with    subsequent  increments  by  each 


*  The  Hon.  Antoine  Aime  Dorion,  Q.  C,  belongs  to  a  family  which  have  given 
several  members  to  the  public  service  of  their  country.  His  father  and  grand- 
father were  both  members  of  the  Lower-Canadian  Assembly.  One  brother 
was  a  member  of  the  Assembly  of  the  united  Canadas,  and  another,  subse- 
quently, of  the  House  of  Commons  of  the  Dominion.  During  the  whole  of  his 
political  life,  Antoine  Aime  Dorion  has  been  a  recognized  leader  of  the  Lower- 
Canadian  Liberal  party.  He  was  three  times  a  member  of  the  Executive 
Council  of  Canada.  He  subsequently,  1873,  became  Minister  of  Justice  in  the 
Dominion  Cabinet,  and  became  Chief  Justice  of  Lower  Canada  in  1874. 


POLITICAL  CRISIS.  457 

successive  Government,  were  bringing  its  fiscal  affiiirs  into 
great  difficulty.  The  position  of  the  ministry  had  become 
critical.  It  managed  to  get  through  the  session,  however, 
without  defeat. 

The  political  outlook  was  not  very  re-assuring.  Much  irrita- 
tion was  felt  in  the  United  States  toward  Great  Britain,  on 
account  of  the  devastation  caused  by  the  "Alabama,"  and 
**  Florida,"  and  other  Confederate  cruisers.  These  piratical 
vessels,  as  the  people  of  the  North  regarded  them,  constructed 
by  British  ship-builders,  and  equipped  by  British  merchants, 
had  captured  and  destroyed  hundreds  of  American  ships,  and 
had  almost  swept  American  commerce  from  the  seas. 

The  Union  armies,  however,  by  sheer  force  of  numbers,  and 
an  unlimited  supply  of  war  materiel^  were  steadily  crushing 
out  the  Southern  rebellion,  notwithstanding  an  heroic  resistance 
worthy  of  a  better  cause. 

A  gleam  of  sunshine  was  thrown  over  the  somewhat  sombre 
condition  of  public  affairs  during  the  year,  by  the  marriage  of 
the  Prince  of  Wales  with  the  lovely  and  amiable  Alexandra, 
Princess  of  Denmark,  which  had  taken  place  on  the  19th  of 
March.  The  recent  visit  of  the  Prince  gave  an  enhanced 
interest  throughout  Canada  in  the  auspicious  event.  The  loyal 
congratulations  of  the  empire  found  admirable  expression  in 
the  noble  ode  of  the  laureate  written  upon  the  occasion. 
58 


458  BISTORT  OF  CANADA. 


CHAPTER  XXXVm. 

THE  CONFEDERATION   MOVEMENT. 

The  Macdonald-Dorion  Ministry  Eesign  —  The  Tach^-Macdonald  Ministry 
Formed  and  Defeated  —  A  Dead-lock  Ensues  —  A  Coalition  Ministry  Formed 
to  Bring  about  the  Confederation  of  the  Provinces  —  Southern  Eefugees  in 
Canada  Seize  American  Steamers  on  Lake  Erie,  and  Plunder  Banks  at  St. 
Albans  —  Canadian  Government  Guards  Frontier  —  The  Growth  of  Con- 
federation Sentiment  —  Charlottetown  and  Quebec  Conferences  —  The  Cana- 
dian Parliament  Adopts  the  Confederation  Scheme  —  Anti-Confederation 
Movement  in  the  Maritime  Provinces  —  Close  of  the  American  "War  — 
Slavery  Abolished  —  Assassination  of  President  Lincoln  —  Canadian  Sym- 
pathy —  Death  of  Sir  E.  P.  Tach6  and  Lord  Palmerston  —  The  Seat  of 
Government  Removed  to  Ottawa. 

THE  affiiirs  of  the  country  were  fast  approaching  a  crisis. 
A  political  dead-lock  was  imminent.  During  the  recess, 
the  ministry  still  further  lost  ground.  Mr.  Macdougall,  a 
member  of  the  Cabinet,  openly  renounced  the  principle  of 
representation  by  population  as  impracticable,  and  evoked  the 
bitter  opposition  of  Mr.  Brown  and  his  influential  organ,  the 
"  Globe."  The  ministry  received  a  severe  blow  in  the  defeat 
of  Mr.  Albert  N.  Richards,  who  had  been  assigned  the  vacant 
office  of  Solicitor-General.  On  his  appeal  to  his  constituents 
for  re-election,  his  previous  majority  of  one  hundred  and  thirty- 
five  was  converted  into  a  minority  of  seventy-five. 

On  the  meeting  of  Parliament  at  Quebec,  February  19, 
1864.  speculation  was  rife  as  to  what  course  ministers  would 
pursue.  The  debate  on  the  address  passed  without  the  proposi- 
tion of  any  amendment  by  the  Opposition,  but  the  ministry 
found  themselves  without  a  working  majority,  and  soon  resigned 
their  portfolios. 

Mr.  Blair,  the  Provincial  Secretary  of  the  late  administra- 
tion, was  requested  to  construct  a  new  cabinet,  but  failed  in  the 


THE   CONFEDERATION  MOVEMENT.  459 

attempt.  Sir  E.  P.  Tache  now  essayed  the  difficult  task,  with 
better  success.*  The  programme  of  the  new  administration 
promised  a  vigorous  militia  policy,  a  commercial  union  with  the 
maritime  provinces,  and  an  earnest  effort  to  maintain  reciprocity 
with  the  United  States,  which  that  country  had  threatened  to 
abrogate.  The  vexed  question  of  representation  remained 
unsettled,  the  fruitful  source  of  future  difficulty.  The  new 
ministry,  soon  after  its  organization,  only  escaped  defeat  on  a 
direct  vote  of  want  of  confidence,  by  a  majority  of  two.  After 
a  month's  struggle  for  existence,  it  succumbed  to  a  hostile  vote 
of  sixty  to  fifty-eight. 

The  anticipated  dead-lock  had  now  arrived.  Parties  were  so 
equally  balanced  that  neither  could  carry  on  the  government  of 
the  country  against  the  opposition  of  the  other.  Every  consti- 
tutional method  of  solving  the  difficulty  had  been  exhausted. 
Dissolution  of  parliament  and  change  of  ministry  brought  no 
relief.  The  application  of  the  double-majority  principle  was 
found  impracticable,  and  representation  by  population  under 
existing  conditions  was  unattainable.  The  solution  of  the  diffi- 
culty that  appeared  most  feasible  was  the  long-contemplated 
plan  of  a  union  of  the  North  American  provinces,  with  a  central 
"joint  authority  "  and  local  self-government. 

On  the  14th  of  June,  the  very  day  of  the  defeat  of  the 
ministry,  a  select  committee,  of  which  Mr.  Brown  was  chair- 
man, reported  in  favour  of  a  "federation  system,  applied 
either  to  Canada  alone,  or  to  the  whole  British  North  American 
provinces."  Immediately  after  the  defeat  of  the  Government, 
Mr.  Brown  spoke  to  several  supporters  of  the  Administration, 
strongly  urging  that  the  present  crisis  should  be  utilized  in 
settling  forever  the  constitutional  difficulties  between  Upper  and 
Lower  Canada,  and  also  assuring  them  that  he  was  prepared  to 
co-operate  with  the  existing,  or  any  other  administration,  that 

*  It  embraced  the  following  members :  —  Sir  E.  P.  Tach^,  and  Messrs.  Car- 
tier,  Gait,  Chapais,  McGee,  and  Langevin,  for  Lower  Canada ;  and  for  Upper 
Canada,  Messrs.  John  A.  Macdonald,  Campbell,  Buchanan,  Foley,  Simpson,  and 
Cockburn. 


460  HISTORY  OF  CAXADA. 

•would  deal  with  the  question  promptly  and  fully,  with  a  view  to 
its  final  settlement.* 

This  proffer  led  to  an  interview  between  Mr.  Brown  and 
Messrs.  Macdonald  and  Gait.  These  gentlemen  agreed  that 
nothing  but  the  extreme  urgency  of  the  crisis  and  the  hope  of 
settling  the  sectional  troubles  of  the  province  forever,  could 
justify  their  combining  for  common  political  action.  "With  a 
view  to  the  accomplishment  of  this  object,  after  prolonged 
negotiation  and  consultation  of  political  supporters  on  both 
sides,  Mr.  Brown  entered  the  cabinet  as  President  of  the 
Council,  and  associated  with  him,  as  representatives  of  the 
Reform  party,  Mr.  William  Macdougall  as  Provincial  Secretary, 
and  Mr.  Oliver  Mowat  as  Postmaster-General.  This  coalition 
was  very  generally  received  with  extreme  satisfaction,  as  a  de- 
liverance from  the  bitter  strife  of  parties  which  had  so  long 
distracted  the  country. 

Contemporary  events  now  demonstrated  the  necessity  for  a 
strong  Government.  The  continued  successes  of  the  Northern 
armies  in  the  fratricidal  conflict  in  the  United  States,  made 
Canada  the  asylum  of  many  Southern  refugees.  Disregarding 
the  sacred  rights  of  hospitality,  these  refugees  organized  suc- 
cessive raids  upon  the  Northern  States  from  the  territory  which 
gave  them  shelter  —  careless  whether  they  embroiled  a  neutral 
country  in  war  with  her  powerful  neighbour,  or  probably 
anxious  to  bring  about  a  collision  between  the  North  and  Great 
Britain. 

In  the  month  of  September,  a  gang  of  Southern  desperadoes 
seized  two  American  steamers  on  Lake  Erie,  with  the  design  of 
releasing  the  Confederate  prisoners  on  Johnson's  Island,  and  of 
destroying  the  shipping  on  the  lake.  The  attempt  was  in- 
efiectual ;  but  a  more  successful  hostile  efibrt  was  made  on  the 
Lower-Canadian  frontier  about  a  month  later.  A  body  of 
twenty-three  refugees  attacked  the  banks  of  St.  Albans,  in 
Vermont,  and  hastily  retreated  across  the  border  with  $233,000 

*  This  paragraph,  -with  several  of  the  statements  which  follow,  are  taken 
verbatim  from  the  memorandum  read  to  the  House  on  the  23d  of  June,  explain- 
ing the  negotiations  which  led  to  the  formation  of  the  Coalition  Ministry. 


The  confederation  movement.  461 

of  ill-gotten  booty,  having  added  the  crime  of  murder  to  that 
of  robbery.  Fourteen  of  the  raiders  were  arrested,  but  were 
subsequently  discharged  by  Judge  Coursel,  of  Montreal.  The 
illegal  surrender  to  them  of  $90,000  of  the  stolen  money  — 
which  the  Canadian  Government  had  subsequently  to  repay  — 
and  the  growing  sympathy  for  the  South  of  a  portion  of  the 
Canadian  press  and  people,  embittered  the  relations  between  the 
two  countries,  and  contributed  largely  to  the  abrogation  of  the 
reciprocity  treaty,  Avhich  soon  took  place.  To  prevent  a  repeti- 
tion of  these  raids,  the  Canadian  Government  distributed  a 
l^atrol  force  of  thirty  volunteer  companies  along  the  more 
exposed  points  of  the  frontier.  An  ' '  Alien  Act "  was  also 
j)assed,  enabling  the  Executive  summarily  to  arrest  suspicious 
characters. 

Meanwhile  the  subject  of  colonial  confederation  was  attract- 
ing increased  attention  in  the  British  North  American  provinces. 
As  we  have  previously  seen  in  this  history,  at  different  periods 
various  schemes,  more  or  less  comprehensive,  had  been  pro- 
posed as  a  solution  of  the  governmental  difficulties  from  which 
they  were  suffering,  and  as  the  best  measure  of  national  defence. 

The  removal  of  the  commercial  restrictions,  caused  by  the 
isolating,  and  often  mutually  hostile,  tariffs  of  the  provinces, 
and  the  establishment  of  intercolonial  free  trade,  it  was  felt 
would  greatly  develop  their  material  prosperity. 

As  early  as  1808,  Mr.  Kichard  J.  Uniacke  had  introduced 
the  question  of  a  union  of  the  British  provinces  into  the  legis- 
ture  of  Nova  Scotia,  but  public  sentiment  was  not  ripe  for  its 
adoption.  In  1814,  Chief  Justice  Sewell,  of  Quebec,  proposed 
a  similar  scheme  to  Lord  Bathurst,  as  a  means  of  solving  the 
governmental  difficulty  in  that  province.  In  1822,  Mr.  John 
Beverly  Robinson,  Attorney-General  of  Upper  Canada,  at  the 
request  of  the  Colonial  Office,  drew  up  a  plan  for  the  confeder- 
ation of  British  North  America.  It  was,  however,  superseded 
by  the  union  of  the  Canadas,  a  measure  to  effect  which  was 
introduced  into  the  Imperial  parliament  that  same  year.  The 
scheme  had  also  been  a  prominent  feature  in  the  report  of  Lord 
Durham  in  1839.     In  1854,  Mr.  Johnson  introduced  the  ques- 


462  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

tion  into  the  Assembly  of  Nova  Scotia,  but  it  was  strongly 
opposed  by  Mr.  Howe,  who  favoured  rather  colonial  representa- 
tion in  the  Imperial  iDarliament.  In  1857,  Messrs.  Johnson 
and  Archibald  proceeded  to  England,  as  delegates  from  the 
Nova  Scotia  legislature,  to  confer  with  the  Colonial  Secretary 
upon  the  subject.  The  Home  authorities,  while  offering  no 
©bstacles,  considered  the  question  one  to  be  chiefly  settled  by 
the  provinces  themselves.  The  same  year,  Mr.  A.  T.  Gait,  in 
an  able  and  eloquent  speech  in  the  Canadian  parliament,  set 
forth  the  advantages  of  confederation,  as  an  antidote  to  sectional 
strife,  a  solvent  of  political  difliculties,  and  a  stimulus  to  in- 
creased prosperity.  The  following  year,  Messrs.  Cartier,  Rose, 
and  Gait,  Canadian  delegates  in  England  on  the  subject  of  the 
Intercolonial  Railway,  urged  upon  the  Colonial  Secretary,  the 
Hon.  Sir  E.  Bulwer  Lytton,  the  confederationof  the  provinces, 
as  a  means  of  allaying  their  mutual  jealousies,  promoting  their 
prosperity,  and  strengthening  the  power  of  the  empire  ;  and 
requested  authority  from  the  Imperial  Government  to  have  a 
conference  of  delegates  from  the  several  provinces  to  discuss 
the  scheme.  The  Colonial  Secretary,  although  not  objecting  to 
the  proposed  conference,  desired  a  more  definite  expression  of 
public  opinion  on  the  subject.  The  idea  continued  to  leaven 
more  and  more  the  public  mind.  It  was  discussed  in  papers, 
pamphlets,  and  speeches.  In  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick, 
Dr.  Tupper  advocated  the  scheme  in  several  able  lectures. 

During  the  progress  of  the  American  war,  the  growth  of 
opinion  in  favour  of  colonial  unification  as  a  means  of  con- 
solidating the  strength  of  the  provinces  in  the  not  imj)ossible 
contingency  of  war  with  the  United  States  was  rapid,  both  in 
Great  Britain  and  in  the  colonies.  The  maritime  provinces 
had  already  been  discussing  the  project  of  a  legislative  union 
among  themselves,  — the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  a  more  com- 
prehensive federation  being  thought  at  the  time  insuperable. 
Delegates  were  accordingly  appointed  by  the  Governments  of 
Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  and  Prince  Edward  Island,  to 
meet  for  the  discussion  of  the  subject  at  Charlottetown,  in  the 
latter  province,  on  the  1st  of  September,  1864.    The  Canadian 


THE  CONFEDERATION  MOVEMENT-  463 

coalition  Government  intimated,  through  the  Governor-General, 
a  wish  to  be  represented  at  that  conference.  It  was  cordially 
invited  to  send  delegates.  It  did  so.*  After  the  Canadian 
delegates  had  expressed  their  views,  the  larger  scheme  seems 
to  have  entirely  swallowed  the  narrower  one.  The  conference 
adjourned  with  the  understanding  that  delegates  from  all  the 
provinces  should  meet  at  Quebec  on  the  10th  of  October.  The 
Canadian  delegates  made,  by  invitation,  a  visit  to  Halifax,  St. 
John,  and  Fredericton,  and  were  everywhere  received  with 
banquets,  balls,  and  hospitable  entertainments,  which  gave  a 
social  impulse  to  the  projected  union. 

On  the  10th  of  October,  the  Quebec  conference  began  its 
sessions  in  a  chamber  of  the  parliament  buildings  in  the  old 
historic  capital.  Thirty-three  delegates  were  present,  of  all 
shades  of  political  opinion,  from  the  several  provinces,  f  Sir 
E.  P.  Tache,  Premier  of  Canada,  was  chosen  President.  The 
occasion  was  one  of  august  and  imposing  interest.  The  Hon. 
John  Hamilton  Gray,  in  his  admirable  History  of  Confedera- 
tion, X  thus  describes  the  scene  :  — 

"  The  time,  the  men,  the  circumstances,  were  peculiar.  The 
place  of  meeting  was  one  of  historic  interest.  Beneath  the 
shadow  of  Cape  Diamond,  on  the  ruins  of  the  old  castle  of  St. 
Louis,  with  the  broad  St.  Lawrence  stretching  away  in  front, 
the  Plains  of  Abraham  in  sight,  and  the  St.  Charles  winding 
its  silvery  course  through  scenes  replete  with  the  memories  of 

*  The  delegates  were :  Messrs.  John  A.  Macdonald,  George  Brown,  George  E. 
Cartier,  Alexander  T.  Gait,  T.  D'Arcy  McGee,  H.  L.  Langevin,  William  Mac- 
dougall,  and  Alexander  Campbell. 

t  The  number  of  delegates  from  the  several  provinces,  and  their  names,  were 
as  follows :  — 

Canada,  12.  Hon.  Messrs.  Tachd,  J.  A.  Macdonald,  Cartier,  Brown,  Gait, 
Campbell,  Macdougall,  McGee,  Langevin,  Cockburn,  Mowat,  and  Chapais. 

New  Brunswick,  7.  Hon.  Messrs.  Tilley,  Johnson,  Chandler,  Gray,  Mitchell, 
Fisher,  and  Stevens. 

PiuNCK  Edward  Island,  7.  Hon.  Messrs.  Gray,  Palmer,  Pope,  Coles,  A.  A. 
Macdonald,  Haviland,  and  Whelan. 

Nova  Scotia,  5.  Hon.  Messrs.  Tapper,  Kenny,  Dickey,  Archibald,  and  Mc- 
Cnlly. 

Newfoundland,  2.    Hon.  Messrs.  Carter,  and  Shea. 

{  Vol.  I.,  pp.  51,  52. 


464  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

old  France,  where  scarce  a  century  gone  the  Fleur  de  Lys  and 
the  Cross  of  St.  George  had  waved  in  deadly  strife,  now  stood 
the  descendants  of  those  gallant  races,  the  Saxon  and  the  Gaul, 
hand  in  hand,  with  a  common  country  and  a  common  cause. 
Met  with  the  full  sanction  of  their  sovereign  and  the  Imperial ' 
Government,  attended  by  the  representatives  and  ministers  of 
the  crown,  sent  from  the  parliaments  chosen  by  the  people, 
they  were  called  upon  to  lay  in  peace  the  foundations  of  a  state 
that  was  to  take  its  place  beside  that  Eepublic  which,  wrenched 
from  the  parent-land  in  strife,  had  laid  the  foundations  of  its 
greatness  with  the  sword,  and  baptized  its  power  in  blood." 

The  deliberations  continued  for  seventeen  days.  Many  con- 
flicting interests  had  to  be  harmonized,  and  many  local  diflicul- 
ties  removed.  At  length  a  general  plan  was  agreed  upon,  and 
resolutions  adopted  as  the  basis  of  an  Act  of  Confederation. 
These  resolutions  were  to  be  submitted  to  the  difierent  legisla- 
tures for  adoption,  without  alteration  of  form;  but  the  scheme 
was  not  to  be  published  till  the  time  for  legislative  action 
should  arrive. 

At  the  close  of  the  conference,  its  delegates  were  feted  with 
public  banquets  at  Quebec,  Montreal,  Ottawa,  Toronto,  and 
elsewhere.  Throughout  Canada  an  outburst  of  loyal  enthusiasm 
hailed  the  prospect  of  the  unification  of  the  scattered  provinces 
into  a  new  nation.  The  universities,  the  boards  of  trade,  pub- 
lic officials,  merchant  princes,  and  the  learned  professions,  vied  in 
paying  honour  to  the  delegates,  and  in  the  utterance  of  patriotic 
sentiments.  Political  feuds,  for  the  time,  were  buried,  the 
strifes  of  parties  were  forgotten,  and  the  ennobling  and  elevat- 
ing influence  of  an  enlarged  national  sentiment  was  felt 
throughout  the  entire  community. 

The  conference  had  sat  with  closed  doors  for  the  purpose  of 
facilitating  freedom  of  discussion  and  deliberation  on  the  mani- 
fold interests  brought  under  review.  The  general  outline  of 
the  scheme,  however,  was  gradually  divulged,  and  soon  became 
widely  known.  It  was  for  the  most  part  received  with  very 
great  favour.  It  was  regarded  as  the  germ  of  a  new  and 
vigorous  national  life.     The  bonds  of  a  common  allegiance  to 


THE  CONFEDERATION  MOVEMENT.  465 

the  sovereign,  and  of  common  sympathies  and  interests,  were 
recognized.  The  restraints  of  local  impediments  upon  free 
intercolonial  trade  -were  felt  to  be  mcreasingly  irksome.  The 
differences  of  productions  and  industries  of  the  several  prov- 
inces made  their  union  seem  all  the  more  necessary  for  the 
greater  prosperity  of  all.  The  wheat-fields  and  lumber  inter- 
ests of  Canada  needed,  and  were  needed  by,  the  fisheries  and 
mines  and  shipping  of  the  maritime  provinces.  The  magnifi- 
cent water-ways  of  the  "West  furnished  unrivalled  facilities  for 
commercial  relations  with  the  East ;  but  the  lack  of  a  winter 
seaport  made  an  intercolonial  railway,  and  the  harbours  of  St. 
John  and  Halifax,  necessary  to  the  development  of  Canadian 
trade. 

A  federal  central  government  also  promised  to  lift  politics 
from  the  level  of  a  jealous  conflict  between  parties  into  that  of 
a  patriotic  ambition  for  the  prosperity  of  the  whole  country, 
and  for  the  development  of  a  vigorous  national  life ;  and  the 
local  legislatures  offered  a  guarantee  of  the  self-control  of  the 
domestic  affairs  of  each  province.  The  long-continued  demand 
of  Upper  Canada  for  representation  by  population  would  be 
granted  in  the  constitution  of  the  central  parliament ;  and  the 
jealousy  of  the  French  population  of  Lower  Canada  for  their 
religion,  language,  and  laws,  would  be  appeased  by  their 
numerical  representation  in  their  local  legislature. 

The  approval  of  the  Home  Government  of  the  general  plan 
of  confederation,  while  it  criticised  some  of  its  details,  was 
unequivocally  expressed.  *  The  press  of  Great  Britain,  as 
well  as  that  of  Canada,  and  the  more  liberal  journals  and 
statesmen  f  of  the  United  States,  joined  in  a  generous  chorus 
of  congratulation. 

•  Despatch  of  the  Colonial  Secretary  to  Lord  Monck,  Dec.  3,  1864. 

t  Mr.  Seward  paid  a  noble  tribute  to  the  nascent  nationality.  "  I  see  in 
British  North  America,"  he  said,  "  stretching  as  it  does  across  the  continent,  a 
region  grand  enough  for  the  seat  of  a  great  empire.  .  .  The  policy  of  the 
United  States  is  to  propitiate  and  secure  the  alliance  of  Canada.  But  the 
policy  which  the  United  States  actually  pursues  is  the  infatuated  one  of  reject- 
ing and  spurning  vigorous,  perennial,  and  ever-growing  Canada,  while  seeking 
to  establish  feeble  States  out  of  decaying  Spanish  provinces  on  the  coast  and 
59 


466  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

Nevertheless,  considerable  opposition  was  at  first  manifested 
towards  the  scheme,  especially  in  the  maritime  provinces.  The 
IDreponderant  influence  of  the  more  populous  provinces  was 
feared,  and  several  of  the  numerous  details  of  the  Quebec 
scheme,  which  was  presented  for  accejDtance  without  modifica- 
tion, were  regarded  with  strong  objection.  Thus  an  anti-confed- 
erate agitation  arose,  and  was  long  and  vehemently  maintained, 
in  the  press,  on  the  platform,  and  at  the  polls. 

On  the  3d  of  February  the  Canadian  parliament  met  at 
1865.  Quebec.  The  resolutions  on  confederation,  which  had 
been  adopted  by  the  Quebec  conference  of  the  previous  year, 
were  submitted  by  Sir  E.  P.  Tach6  in  the  Legislative  Council, 
and  by  the  Hon.  John  A.  Macdonald  in  the  Assembly.  After 
protracted  debate,  the  report  of  which  fills  a  volume  of  over  a 
thousand  pages,  Mr.  Macdonald  moved  the  appointment  of  a 
committee  to  draft  an  address  to  the  Queen  on  the  subject  of 
the  union  of  all  the  British  North  American  provinces.*  Four 
several  motions  in  opposition  to  confederation  were  defeated 
by  large  majorities  ;  the  original  motion  was  carried  by  a  vote 
of  ninety-one  to  thirty-three ;  and  a  strong  deputation  pro- 
ceeded to  England  to  confer  with  the  Imperial  authorities  upon 
the  carrying  out  of  the  project  of  confederation. 

In  New  Brunswick,  in  the  meantime,  a  general  election  had 
taken  place,  and  an  assembly  highly  adverse  to  confederation 
had  been  returned.  Not  a  single  man  who  had  been  a  delegate 
at  the  Quebec  conference  was  elected.  In  Nova  Scotia,  the 
anti-confederation  agitation  was  strongly  pressed  by  Joseph 
Howe,  the  leader  of  the  Opposition.  The  friends  of  the  move- 
ment in  Newfoundland  and  Prince  Edward  Island  were  dis- 
heartened, and  it  seemed  as  though  the  scheme  would  be  ^v-recked 
almost  before  it  was  fairly  launched. 

The  chief  contest  took  place  in  New  Brunswick.     The  Legis- 

in  the  islands  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  All  southern  political  stars  mnst  set, 
though  many  times  they  rise  again  with  diminished  splendour.  But  those 
which  illuminate  the  pole  remain  forever  shining,  forever  increasing  in  si)Ieu- 
dour." 

*  The  committee  was  composed  of  Messrs.  J.  A.  Macdonald,  Brown,  Gait, 
Cartier,  Robitaille  and  Haultain. 


THE  CONFEDERATION  MOVEMENT.  4G7 

lative  Council  was  as  strongly  in  favour  of  confederation  as  the 
Assembly  was  opposed  to  it.  The  scheme  was  received  with 
great  favour  by  the  Imperial  authorities,  and  despatches  from 
the  Colonial  Office  strongly  urged  its  adoption.  These  de- 
spatches were  not  without  their  influence  on  public  opinion  in 
New  Brunswick,  and  as  the  advantages  of  the  proposed  union 
became,  through  fuller  discussion,  more  apparent,  the  tide  of 
feeling  began  to  turn  in  its  favour. 

The  long  and  terrible  civil  war  in  the  United  States  was  now 
drawing  to  a  close.  The  immense  military  strength  of  the 
North  at  length  fairly  crushed  out  the  Southern  revolt.  Gen- 
eral Lee,  with  his  war-worn  army,  surrendered  (April  9)  ; 
Jeflferson  Davis,  the  ill-starred  president  of  the  confederacy, 
was  captured;  and  slavery  was  dead.  Generals  Grant  and 
Sherman  were  hailed  as  the  saviours  of  the  republic.  But  this 
hour  of  the  nation's  triumph  was  dashed  \vdth  horror  and  grief 
by  the  cowardly  and  cruel  murder  of  its  civic  head  —  the 
simple,  honest,  magnanimous  Abraham  Lincoln.  All  Christen- 
dom shuddered  with  abhorrence  at  the  foul  assassination.  The 
heart  of  Canada  was  deeply  stirred.  Crowded  meetings  for  the 
expression  of  the  national  sympathy  were  held,  and  the  utmost 
detestation  of  the-crime  was  avowed.  Amid  tolling  bells,  flags 
at  half-mast,  and  mourning  emblems,  the  obsequies  of  the 
mart;yTed  president  were  celebrated  throughout  the  land  ;  and 
much  of  the  growing  estrangement  of  recent  years  between  the 
two  nations  was  overcome  by  this  exhibition  of  popular  sym- 
pathy and  good-will. 

Li  the  month  of  June  a  disastrous  fire  swept  the  crowded 
wooden  suburbs  of  Quebec,  destroying  a  million  dollars'  worth 
of  property,  and  leaving  three  thousand  people  homeless.  The 
same  month  witnessed  the  decease  of  the  premier  of  Canada, 
Sir  E.  P.  Tache.  He  was  succeeded  in  office  by  Sir  Narcissus 
BcUeau,  a  member  of  the  Upper  House,  and  on  the  8th  of 
August  the  parliament  met  in  Quebec  for  the  purpose  of  receiv- 
ing the  report  of  the  deputation  sent  to  Great  Britain  to  pro- 
mote the  scheme  of  confederation.  The  session  was  short,  and 
little  opposition  was  offered  to  the  ministerial  measures  deemed 


468 


HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 


necessary  for  the  consummation  of  the  grand  design  which  was 
to  become  the  epoch  of  a  new  and  ampler  national  career. 

In  the  month  of  October  the  veteran  English  premier,  Lord 
Palmerston,  also  died  ;  but  the  policy  of  the  British  Government 
with  respect  to  confederation  underwent  no  change. 


PARLIAMENT  BUILDINGS,  OTTAWA. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  year  the  seat  of  government  was 
removed  from  Quebec  to  Ottawa,  where  the  new  parliament 
buildings,  now  approaching  completion,  were  to  become  the 
home  of  a  legislature  still  more  august  than  that  for  which  they 
were  originally  designed.  These  superb  buildings,  the  finest 
specimens  of  Gothic  architecture  on  the  continent,  have  cost  in 
their  erection  over  three  millions  of  dollars.  The  main  build- 
ing is  shown  in  the  engraving.  It  is  constructed  chiefly  of 
cream-colored  sandstone  from  the  adjoining  township  of  Nepean. 
The  departmental  buildings  and  library  are  of  great  elegance 
of  design  and  stability  of  construction. 


THE  FEXIAX  IXVASION,  1866  469 


CHAPTER    XXXIX. 

THE   FENIAN  INVASION,   18G6. 

Reciprocity  Negotiations  —  Hon.  George  Bro-^u  leaves  the  Ministry  —  American 
Fiscal  Policy  —  The  Fenian  Brotherhood  —  Volunteers  called  out — Fenian 
Fiasco  at  Campo  Bello  —  O'Neil  Invades  Canada  from  Buffalo,  June  1  —  The 
Fight  at  Ridgeway  —  The  Fenians  Escape  —  The  Fenians  Threaten  Prescott 
and  Cornwall  —  "  General "  Spear  Crosses  the  Frontier  of  Lower  Canada  — 
He  is  Repulsed,  June  8  —  Last  Parliament  of  "  Old  Canada  "  meets  at  Ottawa, 
June  8  —  It  Revises  Tariif  and  Prepares  for  Confederation  —  The  Monroe 
Doctrine  —  General  Banks'  Bill  in  U.  S.  Congress  —  Fenian  Trials  at  Toronto. 

THE  reciprocity  treaty  between  the  United  States  and 
Canada  was  now  approaching  the  period  of  its  expira- 
tion by  effluxion  of  time.  It  Jiad  been  of  immense  isee. 
commercial  advantage  to  both  countries.  Under  its  provisions 
the  international  trade  had  grown  to  the  enormous  value  of 
seventy  million  dollars  annually.  A  "  Confederate  Council  on 
Commercial  Treaties  "  was  organized  at  Quebec  for  the  purpose 
of  negotiating  for  the  renewal  of  the  treaty,  and  for  the  open- 
ing of  commercial  relations  with  the  West  Indies  and  the  coun- 
tries of  South  America.  *  A  deputation  was  sent  to  Washington 
to  confer  with  the  United  States  Government,  through  the  Brit- 
ish minister.  That  Government,  however,  refused  to  grant  the 
renewal  of  the  treaty,  except  under  conditions  highly  disadvan- 
tageous to  Canada.  The  Canadian  ministry  were  willing  to 
make  considerable  concessions  to  the  United  States,  and  even 
to  accept  legislative  reciprocity  if  the  continuance  of  the  treaty 
could  not  be  secured.  The  Hon.  George  Brown,  however, 
objected  to  a  reciprocity  which  was  liable  to  abrogation  at 
any  time  by  the  vote   of   a  selfish  and  fickle   congress,   and 

*  A  deputation  subsequently  proceeded  to  those  countries  for  this  purpose. 
They  recommended  the  establishment  of  steamship  lines  and  postal  facilities 
and  reciprocal  free  trade.  No  very  definite  result,  however,  accrued  at  the  time 
from  this  effort. 


470  HISTORY   OF  CANADA. 

thought  the  concessions  clemanded  not  warranted  under  the 
circumstances.  In  consequence  of  this  disagreement  of  opinion 
with  his  colleagues  he  retired  from  the  cabinet,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  the  Hon.  Fergusson  Blair.  He  continued,  however, 
with  the  party  which  he  represented,  to  support  the  great 
measure  of  confederation,  which  was  now  so  nearly  accom- 
l^lished. 

]\Ir.  Howe,  the  delegate  from  Nova  Scotia  to  the  trade  con- 
vention at  Detroit  during  the  summer  of  1865,  had  made  a 
profound  impression  by  his  eloquent  exposition  of  the  mutual 
advantages  of  reciprocity ;  but  the  effect  was  only  transient. 
The  exigencies  of  the  American  Government,  a  feeling  of  irri- 
tation at  the  sujDposed  sympathy  of  Canada  with  the  South  during 
the  war,  and  the  delusion  on  the  part  of  at  least  some  members 
of  congress,  that  the  provinces  could  be  thus  coerced  into  seek- 
ing annexation  with  the  United  States,  overrode  every  effort 
for  the  continuance  of  the  treaty.  The  vast  indebtedness 
incurred  by  the  war,  led  to  the  adoption  of  a  high  customs  tariff 
for  revenue  purposes,  afterwards  increased  for  the  protection 
of  the  manufacturing  interests.  It  was  therefore  considered 
necessary  that  the  volume  of  trade  flowing  from  Canada  should 
pay  the  same  proportionate  duty  as  was  levied  on  that  coming 
from  other  foreign  countries. 

Before  the  termination  of  the  treaty,  which  took  place  in  the 
month  of  March,  the  provinces  were  drained  of  all  their  surplus 
live-stock  and  farm-produce.  The  capacity  of  the  railroads 
and  steam-ferries  was  taxed  to  the  utmost  in  their  transport. 
The  stoppage  of  trade,  therefore,  w^as  not  nearly  so  disastrous 
as  was  anticipated;  and  there  were  many  counterbalancing 
advantages  to  the  country  resulting  from  its  interruption.  It 
gi-eatly  stimulated  the  development  of  Canadian  manufactures 
and  the  growth  of  foreign  and  intercolonial  commerce,  and 
promoted  the  scheme  of  confederation.  The  lumber-trade,  the 
most  important  in  the  country,  and  absorbing  more  capital  in 
its  operations  than  any  other,  suffered  very  slightly,  if  at  all. 
The  chief  inconvenience  fell  upon  the  American  consumers, 
who  had  to  pay  higher  prices  for  lumber  and  other  indispensa- 


THE  FENIAN  INVASION,  1866.  471 

ble  necessaries.  New  England  suffered  largely  by  the  loss  of 
the  Canadian  supplies  of  wool  and  other  raw  products,  as  well 
as  of  cheap  provisions  for  her  manufacturing  population,  and 
also  by  the  restriction  of  the  Canadian  sales  of  their  manufact- 
ured products.  Instead  of  promoting  annexation,  the  abro- 
gation of  the  treaty  had  precisely  the  opposite  effect.  It  opened 
new  avenues  of  trade  and  industry,  and  convinced  the  Canadians 
of  their  ability  to  prosper  without  depending  so  largely  on  com- 
mercial intercourse  with  the  United  States,  and  fostered  a  spirit 
of  patriotism  and  nationality. 

This  spirit  was  further  promoted  by  contemporaneous  events. 
The  hostile  demonstrations  of  the  Fenian  brotherhood  caused 
considerable  alarm  along  the  frontier,  and  provoked  just  indig- 
nation against  United  States  officials  who,  for  political  purposes, 
fostered  this  infamous  organization,  and  pandered  to  the  un- 
reasoning prejudices  and  antipathies  of  its  members. 

The  ostensible  object  of  this  armed  conspiracy  was  the  libera- 
tion of  Ireland  from  English  rule,  and  the  avenging  of  its 
ancient  wrongs.  As  a  means  to  that  end,  although  the  relevancy 
is  not  very  apparent,  the  conquest  of  Canada  was  proposed, 
and  multitudes  of  infatuated  '<  patriots"  contributed  large 
amounts  of  money  and  formed  local  organizations  in  the  chief 
American  cities  and  frontier  towns.  Gangs  of  reckless  despe- 
radoes, created  by  the  civil  war,  and  even  some  leaders  of  higher 
rank  and  of  considerable  military  skill  and  experience,  on  the 
return  of  peace,  finding  their  occupation  gone,  joined  the  law- 
less movement.  The  arms,  equipments  and  military  stores  of 
the  disbanded  United  States  armies  being  thrown  upon  the  mar- 
ket, large  quantities  were  purchased  at  a  low  rate  and  stored  at 
points  convenient  for  the  invasion  of  Canada. 

In  order  to  secure  the  Irish  vote,  the  rival  political  factions 
of  the  United  States  shamefully  abetted  this  conspiracy  against 
the  peace  and  prosperity  of  an  unoffending  neighbouring  coun- 
try, and  permitted  the  public  parade  and  drilling  of  this  army 
of  invasion,  not  only  without  censure  but  with  their  active  co- 
operation.    Prominent  civic  and  other  officials  in  the  United 


4:72  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

States  harangued  the  meetings,  subscribed  to  the  funds,  and 
encouraged  the  nefarious  designs  of  the  Fenian  brotherhood. 

The  plan  of  operations  of  this  pernicious  organization  was 
twofold.  The  first  scheme  proposed  a  combined  attack,  at 
several  points  of  the  frontier,  on  Canada,  where,  it  was  asserted, 
the  Irish  ''patriots"  had  many  sympathizers.  The  other  and 
still  more  insane  plan  contemplated  a  direct  attack  upon  Ireland. 

The  former  was  promoted  by  "President"  Roberts  and 
"General"  Sweeney;  the  latter  by  a  rival  section  of  the 
brotherhood,  under  the  leadership  of  "  Head  Centre  "  Stephens 
and  "Colonel"  O'Mahony. 

Saint  Patrick's  day,  the  17th  of  March,  was  announced  as  the 
date  of  the  menaced  invasion.  The  Canadian  Government 
responded  to  the  insolent  threat  by  calling  out  ten  thousand 
volunteers.  The  heart  of  the  country  was  thrilled  to  its  core. 
In  four  and  twenty  hours  fourteen  thousand  of  its  sons  sprang 
to  arms  for  its  protection,  and  multitudes  of  Canadians  dwelling 
in  the  United  States  hastened  home  to  take  part  in  its  defence. 
The  exposed  points  were  promptly  garrisoned  and  the  frontier 
was  vigilantly  guarded.  Saint  Patrick's  day,  however,  passed 
without  any  disturbance  of  the  peace,  and  with  even  less  than 
its  usual  amount  of  bannered  pomp  and  patriotic  demonstra- 
tion. 

In  the  month  of  April,  a  foolish  attempt,  which  ended  in  a 
ridiculous  fiasco,  was  made  by  a  handful  of  ill-equipped  would- 
be  warriors  against  the  New  Brunswick  frontier.  The  presence 
of  a  few  regulars  and  volunteers  at  Campo  Bello,  St.  Andrew's, 
and  St.  Stephen's,  so  cooled  their  martial  enthusiasm,  that  they 
did  not  venture  to  cross  the  boundary-line.  The  theft  of  a 
custom-house  flag  was  duly  chronicled  as  the  gallant  capture  of 
British  colours,  and  won  a  little  cheap  popularity  till  the  dis- 
covery of  the  facts  made  the  actors  in  the  farce  the  laughing- 
stock of  the  continent. 

By  the  middle  of  May,  the  invasion  having  seemingly  ex- 
hausted itself  in  futile  threats,  a  considerable  proportion  of  the 
volunteer  force  were  withdrawn  from  the  frontier,  and  allowed 
to  return  to  their  homes.     But  secret  preparations  were  being 


THE  FENIAN  INVASION,  1866.  473 

made  for  a  number  of  simultaneous  attacks  on  Canada.  One 
expedition  from  Detroit,  Chicago,  and  other  Western  cities,  was 
directed  against  the  Lake  Huron  frontier ;  another,  from  Buffalo 
and  Rochester,  was  to  cross  the  Niagara  River;  a  third,  from 
New  York  and  the  Eastern  cities,  was  to  cross  the  St.  Lawrence 
at  Ogdensburg,  sever  the  communication  between  the  eastern 
and  western  portions  of  the  country  at  Prescott,  and  menace 
the  seat  of  government  at  Ottawa.  Meanwhile  the  right  wing 
of  the  invading  force  was  to  harass  and  plunder  the  frontier 
settlements  of  the  Eastern  townships.  The  result  of  these 
grand  schemes  was  singularly  incommensurate  with  their  mag- 
nitude. 

The  main  attack  was  on  the  Niagara  frontier.  The  city  of 
Buffalo  swarmed  with  lawless  ruffians,  from  Cleveland,  San- 
dusky, Cincinnati,  Detroit,  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  and  even  from 
as  far  south  as  Memphis,  Tennessee.  Before  daylight  on 
Friday,  June  1,  some  twelve  or  fourteen  hundred  of  them, 
under  the  command  of  "  General"  O'Neil,  crossed  from  Black 
Rock,  and  took  possession  of  the  village  of  Fort  Erie.  Al- 
though the  United  States  gunboat  "Michigan"  patrolled  the 
river  for  the  ostensible  purpose  of  preventing  a  breach  of  inter- 
national peace,  yet  O'Neil  was  undisturbed  in  this  movement,  and 
was  during  the  day  re-enforced  by  three  hundred  men.  He  was, 
however,  utterly  disappointed  in  any  Canadian  demonstration 
of  sympathy,  if  such  were  expected.  The  rolling-stock  of  the 
Buffalo  branch  of  the  Grand  Trunk  Railway  had  been  with- 
drawn, but  a  portion  of  the  track  was  destroyed,  a  bridge 
burned,  and  the  telegrapti  wires  cut.  During  the  night,  or 
very  early  on  Saturday  morning,  O'Neil,  leaving  a  guard  at 
Fort  Erie  to  cover  his  retreat,  advanced  ten  miles  southwest- 
ward  towards  the  "Welland  Canal,  probably  with  the  intention 
of  destroying  the  locks  and  cutting  the  railway.  He  halted 
under  cover  of  some  woods  at  Limeridge  not  far  from  the  vil- 
lage of  Ridgeway,  and  threw  up  a  slight  breastwork  of  logs 
and  rails. 

Meanwhile  the  tidings  of  the  invasion  thrilled  the  entire 
country ;   the  volunteers  mustered   in  force  with  the  utmost 


474  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

promptitude  at  their  several  places  of  assembly,  and  active* 
jDreparations  were  made  for  the  repulse  of  the  enemy.  The 
steamboats  "Passport"  and  "  City  of  Toronto "  were  at  once 
reserved  for  military  purposes,  and  the  railway  companies  were 
notified  that  the  lines  leading  to  the  frontier  must  be  placed  at 
the  disposal  of  the  military  authorities.  The  volunteers  of 
Toronto,  Hamilton,  and  other  places  near  the  scene  of  action, 
were  promptly  despatched,  by  train  or  steamer,  to  the  appointed 
l^laces  of  rendezvous.  The  Queen's  Own  Rifle  Brigade,  a 
Toronto  volunteer  corps,  the  Thirteenth  Battalion  of  Hamilton, 
and  the  York  and  Caledonia  volunteers,  under  command  of 
Colonel  Booker,  concentrated  on  Friday  evening,  June  1,  at 
Port  Colborne,  at  the  Lake  Erie  entrance  to  the  Welland 
Canal.  Colonel  Peacock,  with  a  thousand  volunteers  and  seven 
hundred  and  fifty  regulars,  with  a  battery  of  artillery,  took 
post,  late  the  same  night,  at  the  historic  village  of  Chippewa, 
near  the  Falls  of  Niagara. 

Early  on  Saturday  morning,  Colonel  Booker's  force,  ignorant 
of  O'Neil's  whereabouts,  were  conveyed  by  train  to  Ridge  way, 
and  thence  advanced  towards  Limeridge,  with  the  intention  of 
joining  Peacock's  command.  About  eight  o'clock  they  discov- 
ered the  enemy  securely  posted  among  the  trees  on  a  rising 
gi'ound.  The  Queen's  Own  were  thrown  out  as  skirmishers, 
and  drove  in  O'Neil's  advance  line.  The  volunteers  jDressed 
the  enemy  steadily  back  for  more  than  a  mile,  under  a  heavy 
fire.  Some  mounted  Fenians  now  came  in  sight,  and  under  the 
ajDprehension  that  a  force  of  cavalry  was  at  hand,  the  order  was 
given  to  form  squares.  The  advance  skirmishers,  having  ex- 
hausted their  ammunition,  also  retired  on  their  supports.  This 
double  movement  threw  the  volunteer  troops  into  confusion, 
soon  converted  into  a  retreat,  which,  however,  was  gallantly 
covered  by  the  Queen's  Own  and  the  Thirteenth  Battalion,  which 
kept  up  a  cool  and  steady  fire  on  the  ranks  of  the  advancing 
enemy.  In  this  disastrous  afiair  seven  Toronto  volunteers  — 
Ensign  McEachren  and  six  privates  of  the  regiment,  some  of 
them  mere  lads  —  were  slain,  and  four  ofllcers  and  nineteen 
men  wounded,  some  of  whom  afterwards  died  from  injuries 


THE  FENIAN  INVASION,  1866.  475 

received.  The  loss  of  the  Fenian  horde  is  unknown,  as  they 
bui'ied  their  dead  upon  tlie  field  of  conflict,  and  at  once  retreated 
on  Fort  Erie.  There  is  reason  to  believe,  however,  that  it  was 
greater  than  that  which  they  inflicted. 

Colonel  Dennis,  meanwhile,  had  occupied  the  village  of  Fort 
Erie  with  a  force  of  seventy  men,  conveyed  in  a  tug-boat  from 
Port  Colborne,  and  had  captured  the  Fenian  guard  of  sixty 
men.  These  he  confined  on  board  the  tug-boat,  which  was 
employed  to  patrol  the  river  and  prevent  the  arrival  of  Fenian 
re-enforcements.  Colonel  Dennis's  handful  of  men  were  in 
turn  overpowered  by  O'Neil's  command,  more  than  tenfold 
their  number,  which  had  now  retm-ned.  It  captm'ed  foi-ty  and 
wounded  thirteen  of  the  volunteers,  but  not  till  the  latter  had 
inflicted  a  loss  of  five  killed  and  several  wounded  on  the  enemy. 

During  the  night,  four  hundred  armed  iniffians  left  Bufi*alo  to 
re-enforce  the  invaders,  and  many  more  swarmed  in  the  lowest 
purlieu  of  the  city,  ready  to  ravage  and  pillage  the  peaceful 
inhabitants  of  Canada  in  retaliation  for  the  alleged  wrongs  of 
Ireland.  O'Neil,  .however,  found  that  the  conquest  of  Canada 
was  not  the  mere  holiday  campaign  he  seems  to  have  imagined 
it.  Instead  of  any  sympathy  with  his  visionary  and  wicked 
designs,  he  found  the  inhabitants,  almost  to  a  man,  loyal  to  the 
institutions  of  their  country.  He  was  now  anxious,  with  his 
misguided  dupes,  to  escape,  however  ignominiously,  from  the 
country  he  had  so  wantonly  invaded,  before  he  should  be  sur- 
rounded by  the  advancing  force  of  Canadian  volunteers.  He 
therefore  ordered  back  the  re-enforcements  already  on  their  way 
from  Buffalo,  and  during  the  darkness  stole  across  the  river 
with  the  bulk  of  his  force  —  over  nine  hundred  men  —  in  canal- 
boats,  tugs,  skiffs,  and  every  available  means  of  transport,  some 
even  on  planks  torn  up  from  the  wharves.  His  own  pickets, 
and  all  his  Canadian  prisoners,  were  left  behind,  as  well  as  the 
dead  and  wounded. 

On  Sunday  morning.  Colonel  Peacock's  advance-guard 
marched  into  Fort  Erie,  but  were  only  in  time  to  capture  a 
number  of  Fenian  stragglers.  Others  of  the  marauding  ban- 
ditti skulked  through  the  neighbouring  woods  till  they  could 


476  HISTORY  OF  C AX  AD  A. 

escape  across  the  border.  That  Sabbath-day  was  one  of  un- 
wonted excitement  throughout  Canada.  In  many  of  the 
churches  bulletins  announcing  the  names  of  the  killed  and 
wounded  were  read  from  the  pulpits.  In  the  cities,  hospital- 
supplies  were  collected,  and  patriotic  women  met  to  prepare 
lint  and  ambulance  necessaries.  All  day  the  telegraph-wires 
continued  to  flash  intelligence  of  alarm  or  re-assurance.  The 
streets  were  thronged,  the  printing-offices  were  besieged,  and 
the  presses  could  not  print  the  successive  bulletins  fast  enough 
to  supply  the  eager  demand.  Towards  evening  the  city  of 
Toronto  was  moved  by  a  common  sorrow,  as  the  bodies  of  her 
slain  volunteers  were  received  by  an  immense  concourse  of 
the  citizens.  Two  days  later  they  were  borne,  with  funeral 
pageantry,  to  their  early  graves.  A  grateful  country  has 
erected  a  marble  monument  to  their  memory,  which  shall  bo  an 
imperishable  inspiration  of  jDatriotism  to  successive  generations 
of  the  ingenuous  youth  of  Canada. 

The  country  was  now  thoroughly  aroused.  The  volunteers 
were  called  out  in  force,  and  were  massed  at  convenient  centres 
from  which  to  move  to  whatever  point  seemed  menaced  with 
attack.  At  the  military  depots  long  railway  trains,  laden  with 
batteries  of  artillery,  and  with  shot,  shell,  and  other  war  ma- 
teriel, stood  on  the  sidings,  awaiting  the  summons  to  the  point 
of  danger.  Cavalry  and  infantry  marched  through  the  streets 
to  the  sound  of  martial  music,  with  all  the  pomp  and  circum- 
stance of  war.  Hundreds  of  Canadian  youth  employed  in  the 
United  States  threw  up  their  engagements,  and  hastened  home 
to  defend  their  native  land. 

Several  points  on  the  frontier  were  threatened  with  invasion. 
A  large  body  of  Fenians  assembled  at  Ogdensburg,  as  if  for  a 
dash  across  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  a  raid  upon  the  capital. 
But  t^^o  thousand  regular  and  volunteer  troops,  rapidly  massed 
at  Prescott,  and  a  gim-boat  which  patrolled  the  river,  efiectually 
prevented  an  attack. 

The  would-be  invaders  now  moved  eastward  to  Malone, 
opposite  Cornwall;  but  a  force  of  three  thousand  Canadian 
troops  at  the  latter  point  made  them  prudently  desist  from  their 


THE  FENIAX  IXVASIOX,  1866.  477 

designs.  There  was  now  a  hostile  force  of  five  thousand  armed 
men  on  the  frontier  of  a  professedly  friendly  country,  only 
prevented  from  invading  Canadian  soil  and  harassing  and 
ravaging  Canadian  farms  and  villages  by  the  vigilance  and 
valour  of  their  inhabitants.  The  spirited  remonstrance  of  the 
British  minister  at  Washington,  compelled  the  United  States 
Government  at  length  to  interfere  and  restrain  this  wanton  vio- 
lation of  international  right  and  comity.  General  Meade,  an 
able  and  honest  United  States  oflScer,  seized  a  large  quantity  of 
Fenian  arms,  ammunition,  and  military  stores,  at  Ogdensburg, 
and  efiectually  paralyzed  the  movements  of  the  marauders. 

On  the  8th  of  June,  however,  "  General "  Spear,  with  some 
two  thousand  Fenian  ruffians,  crossed  the  frontier  near  St. 
Albans,  and  took  up  a  positional  "Pigeon  Hill,"  three  miles 
from  the  border.  They  forthwith  began  to  plunder  and  ravage 
the  neighbourhood,  but  the  prompt  rally  of  the  Canadian  forces 
compelled  them  to  retreat  precipitately  to  the  sheltering  terri- 
tory of  the  United  States,  where  they  were  disarmed  and 
dispersed  by  General  Meade. 

So  ended  in  ignominy  and  disgrace  to  all  its  actors,  aiders, 
and  abettors,  the  wanton,  infatuated  and  unprovoked  Fenian 
invasion  of  Canada.  The  result  was  not  an  unmixed  evil. 
The  expense  to  the  country  of  the  transport  and  maintenance 
of  troops, — of  whom  forty  thousand  volunteers  alone  were 
at  one  time  under  arms,  —  and  the  cost  of  guarding  its  exten- 
sive frontier,  was  great.  The  sacrifice  of  precious  lives  was 
irreparable  and  lamentable  ;  but  the  glow  of  patriotism  which 
was  kindled  in  the  hearts  of  the  people  made  the  country 
realize  its  strength,  and  developed  a  national  feeling  which  was 
a  guarantee  of  its  ability  to  assume  the  new  and  important 
national  duties  to  which  it  was  about  to  be  summoned.  The 
short  campaign  revealed  also  certain  defects  in  our  military 
system  which  demanded  prompt  removal.  The  equipment  of 
the  troops  and  the  commissariat  arrangements  were  very  imper- 
fect. There  was  also  a  singular  lack  of  proper  information,  and 
ignorance  of  the  topography  of  the  country.  The  precipitance 
of  the  volunteers  in  rushing  into  action  on  the  Niagara  frontier, 


478  BISTORT  OF  CANADA. 

without  waiting  to  carry  out  the  combinations  with  the  regulars 
and  artillery  designed  by  Colonel  Peacock,  was  the  cause  of 
serious  loss  and  prevented  the  infliction  of  a  well-merited 
punishment  upon  the  invaders. 

On  the  same  day  that  the  gallant  Hochelaga  Voltigeurs  were 
repelling  invasion  from  the  eastern  frontier  (June  8),  the  legis- 
lature of  the  country  was  opened  in  the  new  parliament  build- 
ings at  Ottawa.  The  Habeas  Corpus  Act  was  temporarily 
suspended,  in  order  to  enable  the  Government  to  deal  promptly 
with  Fenian  emissaries  from  the  United  States,  and  other  sus- 
picious characters.  The  abrogation  of  the  reciprocity  treaty 
necessitated  the  remodelling  of  the  tariff.  The  maximum  duty 
was  fixed  at  fifteen  per  cent.,  with  free  admission  of  raw  ma- 
terials used  in  manufactures,  and  the  bulk  of  manufactured 
goods  were  admitted  at  the  low  rate  of  five  per  cent.  The 
prosperity  of  the  previous  year  left  in  the  hands  of  the  Finance 
Minister  a  surplus  adequate  to  meet  the  unforeseen  and  heavy 
military  expenditure  caused  by  the  Fenian  raids.  Resolutions 
were  passed  defining  the  constitutions  of  UiDper  and  Lower 
Canada,  in  furtherance  of  the  scheme  of  confederation ;  and, 
on  the  18th  of  August,  the  last  parliament  of  the  old  Canadian 
provinces  was  prorogued. 

"Thus,"  says  the  Hon.  John  Hamilton  Gray,*  "passed 
away  in  calm  a  Constitution  which,  born  in  strife  and  turmoil, 
sprung  from  maladministration  and  rebellion,  —  forced  upon  a 
reluctant  province,  —  (the  oldest,  and,  at  the  time,  most  im- 
portant section  of  the  Union),  without  consulting  its  people, 
and  against  the  wishes  of  the  majority  of  its  inhabitants,  — 
had,  nevertheless,  during  twenty-five  years  of  unexampled 
prosperity  and  material  progress,  laid  the  foundation  deep  and 
strong  of  true  constitutional  liberty,  — had  removed  the  asper- 
ities of  race  and  taught  the  united  descendants  of  France  and 
England  that  the  true  source  of  their  future  greatness  and 
power  on  this  continent  would  lie  in  a  mutual  regard  for  each 
other's  rights,  a  mutual  forbearance  for  each  other's  prejudices, 

*  "  Confederation  of  Canada^"  Vol.  I.,  p.  372. 


THE  FENIAN  INVASION,   1866.  479 

and  a  generous,  strong,  conjoint  effort  towcards  consolidating 
their  extensive  territories,  and  developing  their  vast  resources 
under  one  government,  and  one  flag." 

The  formation  of  a  strong  and  united  nation  on  their  north- 
ern border  was  regarded  "svith  little  favour  by  American  advo- 
cates of  the  Monroe  doctrine.  They  seemed  to  consider  it  the 
natural  right  and  manifest  destiny  of  the  United  States  to  claim 
tho  "whole  boundless  continent"  as  its  own.  Finding  that 
commercial  coercion  and  Fenian  invasion  did  not  drive  the 
loyal  and  patriotic  Canadians  into  the  arms  of  the  model 
republic,  the  attempt  was  made  to  divide  and  cajole  the  British 
North  American  provinces.  In  the  United  States  Congress, 
General  Banks,  an  irrepressible  Massachusetts  "  statesman," 
had  the  eminent  impertinence  to  introduce  a  bill,  providing  for 
the  admission  into  the  American  Union  of  the  British  provinces 
as  four  separate  States,  with  the  assumption  of  their  public 
debt  by  the  Federal  Government.  The  committee  ou  foreign 
affairs,  however,  had  the  good  sense  to  throw  out  the  propo- 
sition as  an  insulting  menace,  and  the  British  North  American 
colonies  were  wisely  allowed  to  settle  their  own  political  destiny 
without  foreign  interference. 

The  ancient  capital  of  Canada  was  again  visited  during  the 
summer  by  one  of  those  disastrous  fires  from  which  it  has  so 
often  suffered.  Over  two  thousand  houses  in  the  St.  Roche 
and  St.  Sauveur  suburbs  were  destroyed,  and  twenty  thousand 
persons  left  homeless.  Great  and  permanent  injury  resulted 
to  the  prosperity  of  the  city  from  the  scattering  of  the  indus- 
trial population,  especially  those  engaged  in  ship-building ; 
and  the  improvement  in  the  navigation  of  the  St.  Lawrence, 
and  the  extensive  substitution  of  steamships  for  sailing  vessels, 
eventually  transferred  the  commercial  supremacy  to  the  city  of 
Montreal. 

At  the  fall  assizes  at  Toronto,  the  trial  of  the  Fenian  prison- 
ers, captured  during  the  recent  raid,  took  place,  and  awakened 
deep  interest  throughout  the  country  and  in  the  United  States. 
Many  American  newspapers  and  politicians,  in  their  efforts  to 
gain  the  Fenian  vote,  did  not  scruple  to  avow  their  sympathy 


480 


HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 


with  the  arraigned  ruffians,  and  even  to  urge  the  interference 
of  the  United  States  Government  on  their  behalf.  The 
ipajesty  of  British  law  was,  however,  asserted ;  and  the  cul- 
prits, without  fear  or  favour,  received  a  fair  trial.  Many  were 
discharged  for  lack  of  sufficient  criminating  evidence,  but 
several  were  convicted  and  sentenced  to  death.  In  deference 
to  a  public  sentiment  in  favour  of  clemency,  this  sentence 
was  commuted  for  one  of  imprisonment  in  the  provincial 
penitentiary. 


.^^^ 


THK   "  GREAT  EASTERN.'* 


During  the  summer  the  '  *  Great  Eastern "  steamship  suc- 
cessfully laid  a  new  Atlantic  telegraph  cable.  Four  previous 
attempts  had  been  failures.  After  twelve  years  of  disappointed 
endeavour,  in  which  he  had  crossed  the  ocean  fifty  times,  the 
genius  of  Field  had  established  permanent  communication 
between  the  Old  "World  and  the  New.  In  1858,  indeed,  a 
cable  had  been  laid,  and  messages  for  a  short  time  transmitted  ; 
but  it  soon  became  silent.  In  1865,  the  giant  size  and  strength 
of  the  ''  Great  Eastern"  were  employed  in  this  difficult  en- 
deavour. When  twelve  hundred  miles  were  laid,  by  a  sudden 
lurch  of  the  ship,  the  cable  snapped  and  was  lost.  The  bottom 
of  the  sea  was  dragged  four  days  in  vain,  and  the  expedition 


THE  FENIAN  INVASION,  1866.  481 

returned  defeated  to  England.  After  landing  the  cable  at 
Valentia  Bay  in  the  summer  of  1866,  the  *<  Great  Eastern" 
returned  to  mid-ocean,  and,  after  a  month's  labour,  grap- 
pled from  the  depth  of  two  miles  the  lost  cable ;  and,  joining  it 
to  one  on  board,  completed  a  second  link  from  land  to  land. 
Both  Great  Britain  and  America  joined  to  do  honour  to  "  the 
Columbus  of  modern  times,  who,  by  his  cable,  had  moored  the 
New  World  alongside  the  Old."  Among  its  earliest  messages 
was  one  announcing  an  armistice  between  Prussia  and  Austria, 
after  the  terrible  seven  days'  campaign  and  decisive  battle  of 
Sadowa,  won,  with  frightful  carnage,  for  the  Prussians,  by  the 
agency  of  the  deadly  needle-gun. 

61 


482  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 


CHAPTER    XL. 

NOVA   SCOTIA,   1755-1834. 

Organization  of  Government,  1758  —  Effects  of  the  War  —  Colonial  Governors 
—  New  England  Agitators  attempt  to  Excite  Sedition  —  United  Empire 
Loyalists  — The  Duke  of  Kent  at  Halifax  — The  "War  of  1812- 14 -Sir  J. 
Wentworth,  Sir  G.  Prevost,  Sir  J.  Sherbroke,  Sir  J.  Kempt  and  Sir  J.  Mait- 
land,  Governors  —  Cape  Breton  —  Quit-rent  Claims. 

WE  have  now  arrived  at  the  very  eve  of  the  confederation 
of  the  four  larger  provinces  of  British  North  America 
into  one  nation.  We  will  therefore  return  and  bring  down  the 
history  of  the  maritime  provinces  to  this  period.  Like  affluents 
of  our  mighty  St.  Lawrence,  which  pour  their  separate  streams 
into  its  broadening  flood,  so  the  currents  of  colonial  history, 
with  the  accomplishment  of  confederation,  merge  their  separate 
existence  in  the  vaster  sweep  of  the  history  of  the  united 
Dominion  of  Canada. 

During  the  war  which  resulted  in  the  conquest  of  Canada 
(1755-1760)  Nova  Scotia  shared  the  disturbances  which  were  in- 
separable from  such  a  prolonged  and  desperate  conflict.  After 
the  fall  of  Louisburg,  f)reviously  described,  (Chapter  XVII.) 
the  tide  of  battle  retreated  from  the  seaboard  to  the  interior. 
The  expulsion  of  the  Acadians  left  a  feeling  of  intense  irrita- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  remnant  of  that  outraged  people  and 
their  Micmac  allies.  Another  serious  impediment  to  the  pros- 
perity of  the  country  was  the  want  of  a  regularly  organized 
government.  There  being  no  representative  legislature,  the 
decrees  of  the  Governor  and  Council  lacked  the  authority  which 
a  popular  sanction  alone  can  give.  Governor  Lawrence,  on 
account  of  the  disturbed  state  of  the  country,  did  not  favour 
the  granting  of  an  Assembly.  The  petitions  of  the  people 
and  the  instructions  of  the  Lords  of  Plantations  induced  him, 
however,  to  waive  his  objections.     At  length  the  first  Legisla- 


NOVA   SCOTIA,  1755-1834.  483 

tive  Assembly  ever  held  within  the  territory  of  the  present 
Dominion  met  in  the  court-house  of  Halifax,  October  2,  1758. 
It  consisted  of  twenty-two  members,  elected  as  representatives 
of  the  people.  The  Church  of  England  was  established  by 
law,  but  perfect  toleration  was  granted  to  all  other  sects. 
Liberal  land-grants  were  offered  as  an  encouragement  to  immi- 
gration. During  the  following  year  five  hundred  and  eighty 
settlers  arrived  from  Boston  and  other  parts  of  New  England, 
and  three  hundred  from  Ireland. 

The  conquest  of  Canada  was  the  cause  of  great  rejoicing  in 
Nova  Scotia.  These  rejoicings,  however,  were  attended  with 
one  melancholy  result.  At  a  ball  held  at  the  Government 
House  to  celebrate  the  capitulation  of  Montreal,  Governor 
Lawrence  caught  a  cold,  which  resulted,  in  a  few  days,  in  his 
death.  The  first  Governor  of  Nova  Scotia  was  followed  to  the 
grave  by  the  regrets  of  the  whole  province.  He  was  accorded 
a  public  funeral  and  a  monument  in  St.  Paul's  Church,  Halifax, 
as  a  tribute  to  his  services  to  the  colony.  The  one  stain  upon 
his  memory  was  the  harshness  that  accompanied  the  expulsion 
of  the  Acadians.  He  was  succeeded  in  office  by  the  Hon. 
Jonathan  Belcher,  Chief  Justice  of  Nova  Scotia. 

During  the  war,  the  French  inhabitants  of  Miramichi  and 
Kestigouche  suflfered  much  from  British  cruisers.  The  thriving 
village  of  La  Petite  Rochelle  was  destroyed  by  Captain  Byron 
in  1760,  and  the  settlement  of  Beaubair's  Island,  numbering  a 
thousand  souls,  was  wasted  by  famine  and  pestilence.  After 
the  war,  a  large  number  of  French  settlers,  now  that  they  were 
abandoned  by  the  mother  country,  took  the  oath  of  allegiance 
to  the  British  crown.  The  Micmac  Indians  also  entered  into  a 
treaty  of  peace  with  the  authorities  at  Halifax,  and  buried  the 
hatchet  with  much  ceremony  in  the  presence  of  the  Governor, 
Council  and  public  officers. 

Much  excitement  was  caused  in  Halifax  on  the  surrender  of 
St.  John's,  Newfoundland,  to  four  French  men-of-war,  in  June, 
1762.  An  attack  from  the  victorious  squadron  was  anticipated, 
and  vigorous  measures  were  taken  for  the  defence  of  the  town. 
A  boom  was  stretched  across  the  North- West  harbour,  and  the 


484  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

"  Northumberland,"  the  only  man-of-war  in  port,  was  anchored 
in  mid-channel.  A  hundred  and  thirty  Acadians  who  still 
remained  in  the  province,  were  shipped  to  Boston  to  prevent 
their  taking  part  in  any  rising  of  the  French.  The  colony  of 
Massachusetts,  however,  refused  them  permission  to  land,  and 
they  were  sent  back  to  Halifax.  In  the  meantime,  peace  was 
declared  November  8,  and,  by  the  treaty  of  Paris,  all  the  French 
possessions  in  Canada,  Nova  Scotia,  Cape  Breton,  and  the 
islands  in  the  Gulf  and  Eiver  St.  Lawrence  were  ceded  to 
Great  Britain.  In  1763,  Colonel  Montague  Wilmot  was  ap- 
jDointed  Governor.  The  following  year  Cape  Breton  and  the 
island  of  St.  John  (Prince  Edward  Island)  were  annexed  to 
Nova  Scotia;  but  the  latter  was  again  separated  in  1770. 

A  rapid  succession  of  Governors  and  Lieutenant-Governors 
now  administered  the  affairs  of  Nova  Scotia  till  its  separation 
from  New  Brunswick.  *  A  steady  flow  of  immigration  increased 
the  population  and  prosperity  of  the  province.  During  the 
agitation  in  Massachusetts  with  respect  to  the  Stamp  Act,  that 
jDrovince  endeavoured  to  secure  the  sympathy  and  support  of 
Nova  Scotia.  But  the  loyalty  of  the  younger  colony  was  un- 
shaken and,  with  a  few  individual  exceptions,  it  never  swerved 
from  its  fealty  to  the  mother  country  during  the  troublous  times 
of  the  Revolutionary  War.  On  the  outbreak  of  that  war  a 
proclamation  of  non-intercourse  with  the  revolted  colonies  was 
issued,  and,  notwithstanding  the  inducements  of  large  profits, 
with  few  exceptions  was  faithfully  observed.  The  coast  settle- 
ments of  Nova  Scotia  were  much  harassed  by  American  priva- 
teers. A  party  from  Machias  destroyed  the  fort  at  the  mouth 
of  the  St.  John  and  fired  the  houses  of  the  fishing-station  there 
established.  Emissaries  from  Massachusetts  endeavoured  to 
stir  up  disaffection  among  a  settlement  of  New  England  immi- 
grants at  Maugerville.     Led  astray  by  their  seductions,  a  num- 


*  The  names  and  dates  of  assuming  office  are  as  follows.  They  do  not  de- 
mand individual  characterization  :  Michael  Franklin,  1766 ;  Lord  William 
Campbell,  1766  and  1772;  Francis  Legge,  1773;  Mariot  Arhuthnot,  1776; 
Eichard  Hughes,  1778;  Sir  Andrew  S.  Hammond,  1781;  John  Parr,  1782; 
and  Edward  Fanning,  1783. 


XOVA   SCOr/J,  1755-1834.  485 

ber  of  the  latter  made  a  futile  attack  on  Fort  Cumberland 
(Beau  Sejour) .  Failing  to  capture  it,  they  seized  a  brig,  which 
they  carried  off  and  sold  at  Machias.  This  escapade,  however, 
was  overlooked  by  the  Government  on  their  indemnifying  the 
owners  of  the  brig. 

The  seductions  of  the  emissaries  of  revolt  proved  more  suc- 
cessful with  the  Micmac  Indians.  Ever  eager  for  a  fray,  they 
agreed  to  send  a  war-party  of  six  hundred  "  braves"  to  fight 
for  General  Washington,  and  to  make  an  attack  on  the  British 
settlements.  Mr.  Franklin,  the  Commissioner  of  Indian 
Affairs,  however,  invited  the  chiefs  to  an  interview,  where  he 
so  feasted  and  flattered  and  loaded  them  with  presents,  that 
they  broke  their  agreement  with  Washington,  and  renewed 
their  allegiance  to  King  George.  A  similar  outbreak  the  fol- 
lowing year  was  pacified  by  similar  means.  Since  then,  the 
Nova  Scotia  Indians  have  ever  been  loyal  to  the  crown. 

Liberal  provision  was  made  in  Nova  Scotia,  as  well  as  in 
Canada,  for  the  reception  of  the  U.  E.  Loyalist  refugees  from 
the  United  States,  and  large  land-grants  were  allotted  them. 
Considerable  numbers  came  to  Halifax,  Annapolis,  Port  Rose- 
way  (Shelburne) ,  and  other  points.  The  main  body,  however, 
settled  near  the  St.  John  and  Kennebecasis  rivers,  of  whose 
fertile  lands  they  had  received  glowing  accounts  from  agents 
sent  to  explore  the  country.  On  the  18th  of  May,  the  ships 
bearing  these  exiles  for  conscience'  sake,  arrived  at  the  mouth 
of  the  St.  John.  Here  they  resolved  to  found  a  new  Troy,  to 
hew  out  for  themselves  new  homes  in  the  wilderness.  The 
prospect  was  not  a  flattering  one.  The  site  of  the  present 
noble  city  of  St.  John  was  a  forest  of  pines  and  spruces,  sur- 
rounded by  a  dreary  marsh.  The  blackened  ruins  of  Fort 
Frederick  and  of  a  few  fishermen's  huts  met  their  gaze  ;  to- 
gether with  a  block-house,  and  a  few  houses  and  stores.  A 
rude  shelter  was  speedily  constructed  for  the  reception  of  the 
destitute  families,  and  before  the  summer  was  over,  a  popula- 
tion of  five  thousand  persons  was  settled  in  the  vicinity. 
Among  these  were  seventy-four  refugees  from  ^Maryland.  They 
were  the  survivors  of  the  wreck  of  the  "Martha,'*  a  ship  of 


486  HISTORY  OF  Canada. 

the  September  fleet,  which  had  sailed  from  New  York  to 
Quebec,  with  eight  thousand  of  these  exiled  people. 

To  the  new  settlement  the  name  of  Parrtown  was  given,  in 
honour  of  the  energetic  Governor  of  Nova  Scotia.  In  a  letter 
to  Lord  North,  in  September,  1783,  that  gentleman  estimates 
the  number  of  refugee  loyalists  in  Nova  Scotia  and  St.  John's 
Island  at  thirteen  thousand.  Soon  the  loyalists  claimed  repre- 
sentation in  the  Assembly  of  Nova  Scotia.  This  the  Governor 
opposed,  as  his  instructions  prohibited  the  increase  of  repre- 
sentatives. The  settlers  on  the  St.  John  urged  that  their  ter- 
ritory should  be  set  apart  as  a  separate  province,  with  its 
own  representative  institutions.  They  had  powerful  friends  in 
England,  and  the  division  was  accordingly  made.  The  Prov- 
ince of  New  Brunswick  was  created,  and  named  in  honour  of 
the  reigning  dynasty  of  Great  Britain,  1784.  Cape  Breton,  at 
the  same  time,  was  made  a  separate  province  ;  the  River  Missi- 
quash  becoming  the  dividing  line. 

Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick  both  experienced  the 
irrepressible  conflict  between  the  Council  and  the  Assembl}^,  — 
between  the  prerogatives  of  the  crown  and  the  growth  of 
popular  liberty.  During  the  French  and  Eevolutionary  wars, 
Halifax  had  been  a  great  naval  and  military  rendezvous,  and 
society  assumed  a  highly  aristocratic  and  conservative  tone. 
The  Duke  of  Kent,  father  of  Queen  Victoria,  during  the  latter 
years  of  the  century  (1794*-1799)  Commander-in-Chief  of  the 
royal  forces,  dispensed  a  splendid  hospitality,  and  fostered  the 
loyal  enthusiasm  of  the  people.  In  compliment  to  him,  the 
name  of  St.  John's  Island  was  changed  to  Prince  Edward  Island. 
Much  English  money  was  spent  in  the  colony,  and  its  com- 
mercial progress  was  rapid.  Governor  Parr,  and  his  successor, 
Sir  John  Wentworth,  jealously  guarded  the  prerogatives  of  the 
crown  against  what  they  considered  as  the  democratic  encroach- 
ments of  the  people.     The  latter,  especially,  was  a  strong  sup- 

*  In  1796,  six  himdred  Maroons,  insurgent  negroes  from  Jamaica,  were  trans- 
ported to  Nova  Scotia,  and  allocated  on  lands.  The  experiment,  hovrever, 
proved  unsuccessful,  and  they  were  subsequently  removed  to  the  more  con- 
genial climate  of  Sierra  Leone. 


NOVA  SCOTIA,   1755-1834.  487 

porter  of  the  Church  of  Englapd.  Through  his  exertions, 
King's  College  was  established  at  Windsor,  for  the  exclusive 
benefit  of  that  Church,  all  other  denominations  being  excluded 
from  its  privileges. 

In  1808,  Sir  John  Wentworth  was  succeeded  in  office  by  Sir 
George  Prevost.  As  war  with  the  United  States  was  immi- 
nent, he  was  promoted,  in  1811,  on  account  of  his  presumed 
military  ability,  to  be  Governor  of  Canada  and  Commander-in- 
Chief  of  the  forces.  Before  leaving  Nova  Scotia,  he  laid  the 
foundation-stone  of  the  handsome  provincial  buildings  in  the 
city  of  Halifax.  He  was  succeeded  by  Sir  John  Cope  Sher- 
broke.  Nova  Scotia  felt  little  of  the  direct  burdens  of  the  war 
of  1812-14,  as  compared  with  the  upper  provinces,  but  bene- 
fited very  greatly  by  the  increased  military  and  naval  expendi- 
ture. The  vast  fleets  of  Great  Britain  rendezvoused  in  the 
spacious  harbour  of  Halifax,  the  guns  of  the  citadel  continually 
welcomed  the  arrival  of  prizes  in  tow  of  British  cruisers,  and  the 
Imperial  dock-yard  was  busy  with  repairs.  We  have  already 
described  the  stirring  episode  of  the  arrival  of  the  *'  Chesa- 
peake," captured  by  the  gallant  Broke  of  H.  M.  S.  **  Shan- 
non." In  1814,  two  expeditions  sailed  from.  Halifax  for  the 
coast  of  Maine.  By  the  first,  Moose  Island  and  Eastport,  and, 
by  the  second,  Castine  and  Bangor  were  taken,  and  the  entire 
region  from  the  Penobscot  to  the  St.  Croix  was  reduced  under 
British  rule.  For  this  enterprise,  the  Governor  received  the 
thanks  of  the  Assembly,  and  the  grant  of  £1,000  to  purchase 
a  service  of  plate. 

In  1816,  Sir  John  Sherbroke  was  promoted  to  the  Governor- 
Generalship  of  Canada.  He  was  succeeded  by  the  Earl  of 
Dalhousie,  a  gallant  soldier  and  accomplished  gentleman. 
Nova  Scotia  felt  severely  the  re-action  from  the  factitious  pros- 
perity caused  by  the  war.  The  revenue  greatly  fell  off,  trade 
languished,  the  dock-yard  establishment  was  reduced,  and  hun- 
dreds of  workmen  were  thrown  out  of  employment.  The  dis- 
tinction of  being  the  chief  British  naval  station  in  American 
waters,  was  transferred  from  Halifax  to  Bermuda,  to  the  great 
injury  of  the  former.     A  more  agreeable  circumstance  was  the 


488  BISTORT  OF  CANADA. 

establishment  and  endowment  of  Dalhousie  College  at  Halifax, 
and  the  inauguration  of  the  parish-school  system  of  education. 

Lord  Dalhousie,  following  established  precedent,  was  pro- 
moted to  the  Governor-Generalship  of  Canada,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded in  1820,  by  Sir  James  Kempt,  G.  C.  B.  During  this 
year,  Cape  Breton  was  re-united  to  Nova  Scotia.  Its  fortunes, 
as  a  separate  province,  since  1784,  had  not  been  propitious. 
Louisburg  was  destroyed  to  prevent  its  being  seized  and  re-for- 
tified by  the  French,  and  Sydney  made  the  seat  of  Govern- 
ment. Dissensions  divided  the  council,  and  a  superfluous 
number  of  officials  drained  the  exchequer  of  the  tiny  colony. 
Commercial  disaster  and  discontent  followed.  The  Home  au- 
thorities, therefore,  decreed  its  re-union  with  Nova  Scotia,  with 
a  representation  of  two  members  in  the  Assembly  of  that 
province. 

In  1828,  Sir  James  Kempt  was  transferred  to  the  Govern- 
orship of  Lower  Canada,  and  Sir  Peregrine  Maitland  from  that 
of  Upper  Canada  to  Nova  Scotia.  The  question  of  quit-rents 
was  one  that  at  this  time  occupied  much  public  attention,  as  in 
the  other  maritime  provinces.  These  rents,  which  were  only  a 
shilling  a  year  for  each  fifty  acres,  had  been  imposed  by  Gov- 
ernor Lawrence,  in  1759,  on  all  grants  of  public  lands.  This 
tax,  however,  small  as  it  was,  was  not  paid,  chiefly  on  the  plea 
of  poverty.  By  the  year  1811,  the  arrears  amounted  to  over 
£40,000,  and  the  Eeceiver-General  made  an  efibrt  to  collect 
them.  The  Assembly,  however,  appealed  to  the  Home  Gov- 
ernment against  their  collection.  The  matter  remained  in 
abeyance  till  the  year  1827,  when  Lord  Bathurst,  the  Colonial 
Secretary,  cancelled  all  the  quit-rents  up  to  that  date,  but 
ordered  their  collection  for  purposes  of  local  improvements  for 
the  future.  The  Assembly  again  petitioned  against  the  quit- 
rent  claims.  The  Colonial  Office  declined  to  remit  them,  but 
ofiered  to  commute  them  for  the  annual  sum  of  £2,000,  which 
was  about  their  value.  The  House,  however,  was  unwilling  to 
accept  this  compromise,  and  argued  that  their  long  suspension 
had  created  the  impression  that  these  rents  would  never  be 
demanded,  and   that   the  conveyance  of  land  had  uniformly 


NOVA   SCOTIA,  1755-1834.  489 

been  with  this  understanding.  The  Colonial  Office,  however, 
was  firm,  and  this  commutation  was  subsequently  (1836) 
accepted  by  the  Assembly. 

In  1832,  Sir  Peregrine  Maitland  returned  to  England,  and 
the  Hon.  T.  N.  Jeffrey  administered  the  government  for  eigh- 
teen months  till  the  arrival,  in  1834,  of  Sir  Colin  Campbell, 
the  new  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Nova  Scotia. 


490 


HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 


CHAPTER  XLI. 


NOVA  SCOTIA,   1834-1867. 

Family  Compact — Joseph  Howe,  a  Champion  of  Popular  Eights  —  Consti- 
tutional Struggle  —  Lord  Falkland's  Stormy  Administration  —  Sir  John 
Harvey  grants  Eesponsible  Government,  1848  —  Intercolonial  Eailway  Agita- 
tion —  Eeciprocity  —  Sir  J.  Gaspard  Le  Marchant,  Earl  Mulgrave,  and  Sir  E. 
G.  MacDonnell,  Governors,  1852-1867  —  Confederation  Conferences  —  Anti- 
Confederation  Ee-action. 

THE  maritime  provinces,  concurrently  with  the  rebellion  in 
the  Canadas,  were  agitated  by  a  good  deal  of  political 
excitement.  The  general  causes  of  discontent  were  similar, 
but  they  did  not  lead  to  any  of  the  acts  of  violence  which  un- 
happily took  place  in  the  western  provinces.  Both  Nova  Scotia 
and  New  Brunswick  were  under  the  domination  of  an  irrespon- 
sible Executive  Council,  which  engrossed  the  public  offices  and 
administered  the  affiiirs  of  the  colonies  with  slight  regard  to 
the  authority  of  the  elective  Assembly  or  to  the  wishes  of  the 
people. 

In  Nova  Scotia,  when  Sir  Colin  Campbell  assumed  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  government, 
the  Executive  Council,  at  whose 
Board  sat  the  Bishop,  the  Chief 
Justice,  and  a  *'  Family  Compact " 
of  allied  members,  met  in  secret 
conclave  and  set  at  defiance  the 
interests  and  rights  of  the  people. 
Joseph  Howe,  the  son  of  a  U.  E. 
Loyalist,  became  the  champion  of 
popular  rights.  A  shrewd  and 
vigorous  journalist,  and  a  ready 
and  eloquent  speaker,  "Joe 
Howe,"  as  he  was  familiarly  called,  wielded  immense  influ- 
ence throughout  the  province.     In  his  place  in  the  Assembly, 


HON.  JOSEPH  HOWE. 


NOVA  SCOTIA,   1834-1867.  491 

on  the  public  rostrum,  and  through  the  columns  of  his  journal, 
he  thundered  against  the  oligarchy  that  governed  the  province. 
The  Assembly  formulated  the  public  grievances  into  twelve 
resolutions,  submitted  by  Mr.  Howe,  which  denounced  isar. 
the  Council  as  being  "  exclusive,  intolerant,  opposed  to  the 
spread  of  civil  and  religious  liberty,  enlightenment  and  edu- 
cation among  the  people,  and  actuated  by  motives  of  self- 
interest  which  were  prejudicial  to  the  trade  and  commerce  of 
the  country."  There  was  only  too  much  truth  in  the  charges. 
The  members  of  the  Council  were  all  residents  of  Halifax, 
and  did  not  represent  the  interests  of  the  other  parts  of  the 
province.  Ten  of  the  Councillors  were  members  of  the  Church 
of  England,  which  thus  obtained  a  preponderant  influence. 
The  other  denominations,  which  were  yearly  growing  in  num- 
bers, were  very  inadequately  represented.  Five  of  the  Coun- 
cillors were  partners  in  the  same  banking  institution.  These 
facts  gave  the  sting  to  the  accusations  of  the  popular  cham- 
jjion,  Joseph  Howe.  The  Council  demanded  the  rescinding 
of  the  obnoxious  resolutions,  under  the  threat  of  putting  a 
stop  to  all  legislation  in  case  of  refusal.  The  Assembly 
"kept  the  promise  to  the  ear,  but  broke  it  to  the  hope;" 
for,  w^hile  the  resolutions  were  formally  cancelled,  they  were 
embodied  in  an  address  to  the  King,  which  prayed  for  an 
elective  Legislative  Council  and  the  exclusion  of  the  Bishop 
and  Chief  Justice  from  its  board. 

The  prayer  of  the  petition  was  answered  in  part.  The  Coun- 
cil was  divided  into  two  branches,  and  the  Executive  no  lonffer 
sat  in  secret  conclave.  The  casual  and  territorial  revenue  was 
surrendered  to  the  control  of  the  Assembly,  but  the  Council 
was  not  made  elective.  The  staunch  old  Governor  was  a  sturdy 
upholder  of  the  prerogatives  of  the  crown.  The  Eeformers  of 
Nova  Scotia  were  stigmatized  by  their  opponents  as  rebels  and 
republicans,  and  partisans  of  Papineau  and  Mackenzie,  the 
malcontent  leaders  of  the  upper  provinces.  Deputations  were 
sent  to  England  by  the  rival  parties,  praying,  respectively,  for 
and  against  the  granting  of  responsible  government.  Lord 
Durham's  mission  to  Canada  was  regarded  with  intense  interest, 


492  BISTORT  OF  CANADA. 

and  his  masterly  report  was  received  by  the  Reformers  with 
enthusiasm.  The  scheme  of  a  confederation  of  all  the  prov- 
inces was  however  denounced  by  the  Conservative  majority  as 
dangerous  and  destructive  to  the  empire,  tending  to  separate 
the  colonies  from  the  mother  country  and  to  embroil  the  mari- 
time provinces  with  the  disputes  of  the  two  Canadas.  The 
strife  of  parties  became  intense.  Early  in  the  parliamentary 
session  of  1840,  Mr.  Howe  introduced  a  series  of  resolutions 
condemnatory  of  the  policy  of  the  Government,  and  expressing 
a  want  of  confidence  in  the  Executive  Council.  The  resolutions 
were  carried  by  a  vote  of  thirty  to  twelve.  Sir  Colin,  however, 
declined  to  make  any  new  appointments  to  the  Council  which 
would  bring  it  more  into  harmony  with  the  popular  sentiment 
and  with  the  Lower  House.  The  Assembly  respectfully  peti- 
tioned the  crown  to  recall  the  intractable  Governor  and  appoint 
one  who  would  carry  out  the  expressed  purpose  of  the  Imperial 
authorities  to  grant  responsible  government  to  the  colonies. 
The  gallant  old  soldier,  the  future  hero  of  Alma,  Balaclava  and 
LucKnow,  was  personally  popular  for  his  upright  and  honour- 
able character,  and  was  only  opposed  on  the  ground  of  his 
public  policy. 

He  was  succeeded  in  1840  *  by  Lord  Falkland,  whose  exalted 
notions  of  vice-regal  prerogatives  became  the  occasion  of  much 
popular  discontent.  One  of  his  first  acts,  however,  was  the 
practical  recognition  of  the  principle  of  responsible  govern- 
ment, so  long  contended  for^  The  Legislative  Council  was 
enlarged  to  twenty  members,  nine  of  whom  represented  rural 
districts.  Its  deliberations  were  conducted  with  open  doors. 
Four  members  of  the  Executive,  who  had  no  place  in  either  the 
Legislative  Council  or  Assembly,  were  requested  to  retire,  and 
Messrs.  Howe  and  McNab,  representative  Reformers,  were 
called  to  their  places.  Six  of  the  ten  members  of  the  Execu- 
tive were  also  members  of  the  Assembly,  and  therefore  directly 
amenable  to  their    constituents  —  a  wholesome   constitutional 

*  During  this  year,  the  "  Britannia,"  the  first  steamer  of  the  Canard  line, 
"began  her  trips  between  Liverpool,  Halifax  and  Boston.  The  Cunard  fleet  has 
grown  to  fifty  vessels,  with  a  capacity  of  a  hundred  thousand  tons. 


NOVA   SCOTIA,  1834-1867.  493 

check  on  the  Government  which  the  people  had  never  possessed 
before.     Mr.  Howe  was  also  elected  Speaker  of  the  Assembly. 

This  coalition  government  was  destined  to  be  of  brief  dura- 
tion. The  question  of  higher  education  was  the  rock  on  which 
it  was  wrecked.  Mr.  Howe  and  the  Reform  party  favoured  the 
project  of  a  ^jrovincial  university  of  an  undenominational  char- 
acter. Their  opponents  were  in  favour  of  denominational  col- 
leges, supported  by  grants  of  public  money.  The  Assemlily 
defeated  the  latter  scheme  by  a  vote  of  twenty-six  to  twenty- 
one.  The  Governor  thereupon  dissolved  the  House.  On  the 
appeal  to  the  country,  Mr.  Johnson,  the  Conservative  leader, 
was  sustained  by  a  small  majority.  Messrs.  Howe,  McNab  and 
Uniacke,  who  had  accepted  office  subject  to  the  approval  of  the 
Assembly,  proved  their  sincerity  by  resigning  their  seats  in 
vindication  of  their  demand  for  responsible  government.  A 
long  and  bitter  agitation  followed.  Public  feeling  ran  high. 
Mr.  Howe  moved,  but  failed  to  carry,  a  vote  of  want  of  confi- 
dence in  the  Government.  He  forthwith  began  a  fierce  news- 
paper war  on  the  Council  and  Governor,  a  mode  of  attack  in 
which  he  was  an  adept.  Lord  Falkland  was  made  the  target  of 
the  most  scurrilous  ridicule  and  invective,  in  jDrose  and  verse. 
He  winced  under  the  ordeal,  and  wrote  recriminatory  despatches 
to  the  Colonial  Secretary.  These,  returned  to  Nova  Scotia, 
were  read  by  the  Speaker  in  the  Assembly ;  and  the  breach 
between  the  Reform  leaders  and  the  Governor  grew  wider  than 
ever.  It  was  evident  that  Lord  Falkland's  usefulness  was  at  an 
end,  and  he  was  recalled  in  1846. 

He  was,  succeeded  by  Sir  John  Harvey,  ex-Governor  of  New 
Brunswick,  Prince  Edward  Island  and  Newfoundland.  The 
new  Governor  attempted  to  form  a  coalition  Council  by  taking 
in  the  leading  men  of  both  parties.  Mr.  Howe  and  his  friends, 
however,  anticipating  the  victory  of  their  party  at  the  approach- 
ing general  elections,  declined  the  overtures  of  the  Governor. 
The  result  confirmed  their  expectations. 

When  the  new  parliament  met  in  1848,  the  Government  was 
defeated  on  a  direct  vote  of  want  of  confidence  by  a  majority 
of  seven  in  a  House  of  forty-nine.     The  Executive  Council 


494  HISTORY  OF  C AX  AD  A. 

thereupon  resigned  and  a  new  ministry  was  formed  from  tlie 
leaders  of  the  Reform  party.*  Thus  were  the  principles  of 
responsible  goverimient  fully  and  finally  recognized. 

The  question  of  an  intercolonial  railway  now  for  some  time 
occupied  much  public  attention.  The  advantage  of  such  a  road, 
as  a  bond  of  union  between  the  upper  and  lower  provinces,  and 
as  a  military  necessity  of  the  empire,  had  been  pointed  out  in 
Lord  Durham's  Eeport.  "WTien  the  vexed  boundary  question 
was  settled  in  1842,  the  Imperial  authorities  proposed  maldng 
a  military  macadamized  road  through  New  Brunswick  to  Que- 
bec. A  London  company  offered  to  substitute  a  railway  if 
subsidized  by  a  money  grant.  The  scheme  met  with  warm 
sympathy  in  the  maritime  provinces,  but  in  Canada  was  regarded 
as  less  important  than  the  construction  of  a  railway  westward 
from  the  head  of  ocean  navigation  at  Montreal.  Lord  Falkland 
very  reasonably  deemed  it  impracticable  for  a  private  company 
to  carry  out  such  a  gigantic  undertaking.  It  was  one  that  de- 
manded the  united  action  of  the  several  provinces,  assisted  by 
the  British  Government.  The  Imperial  authorities,  therefore, 
in  response  to  the  united  request  of  the  provinces,  despatched 
Major  Eobinson  and  Captain  Henderson  of  the  Royal  Engineers, 
with  a  full  staff,  to  make  an  exjDloratory  survey.  Their  report 
was  submitted  in  1849,  but  the  Home  Government,  however, 
declined  to  proceed  with  the  undertaking. 

The  commercial  necessity  for  connection  with  the  railway 
system  of  the  United  States  became  yearly  more  strongly  felt 
in  the  maritime  provinces.  An  important  railway  convention 
was  therefore  held  at  Portland,  Maine,  in  July,  1850.  Dele- 
gates from  the  lower  provinces  met  commercial  representatives 
of  the  New  England  States.  Out  of  this  convention  grew  the 
project  of  the  European  and  North  American  Railway,  connect- 
ing Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick  with  the  railway  system  of 


*  Its  members  were  Messrs.  J.  B.  Uniacke,  Michael  Tobin,  Hugh  Bell,  Joseph 
Howe,  James  McNab,  Hubert  Huntingdon,  "Wm.  F.  Des  Barres,.L.  O'Connor 
Doyle,  and  George  R.  Young. 

On  June  8,  1849,  the  centennial  anniversary  of  the  founding  of  Halifax  waa 
celebrated  with  great  eclat. 


NOVA  SCOTIA,  1834-1867.  495 

the  United  States.  Mr.  Howe,  however,  was  opposed  to  plac- 
ing a  railway  through  British  territory  under  the  control  of  an 
American  company.  He  urged  the  adoption  of  a  national 
policy  which  should  raise  money  for  the  construction  of  the 
road  on  the  credit  of  the  provinces,  under  Imperial  guarantee. 
Strengthened  by  the  approval  of  the  country,  he  proceeded  to 
England  to  urge  this  project.  The  aid  of  the  Imperial  Govern- 
ment was  promised  to  the  revived  mtercolonial  scheme,  but  on 
the  accession  of  the  Derby  administration,  it  again,  for  a  time, 
fell  to  the  ground.  Canada  and  New  Brunswick  closed  a  con- 
tract with  the  great  firm  of  Morton  Peto,  Brassey  &  Co.,  for 
the  construction  of  the  Grand  Trunk,  and  St.  John  and  Shediac 
Railways,  respectively ;  but  Nova  Scotia  declined  to  enter  into 
a  contract  with  a  private  firm. 

On  the  22d  of  March,  1852,  Nova  Scotia  was  called  to 
deplore  the  death  of  its  popular  Governor,  Sir  John  Harvey. 
The  veteran  statesman,  — he  was  in  his  seventy-fourth  year, — 
had  passed  through  a  distinguished  and  honourable  career.  He 
served  in  a  military  capacity  in  India,  in  Egypt,  and  in  the 
Canadian  war  of  1812-14.  He  was  successively  Lieutenant- 
Governor  of  Prince  Edward  Island,  New  Brunswick,  New- 
foundland, and  Nova  Scotia;  and  full  of  years  and  full  of 
honours,  — sans  jpeur  et  sans  reproche,  — he  came  to  his  grave. 
The  government  was  administered  by  Colonel  Bazalgette  till 
the  arrival  of  the  new  Lieutenant-Governor,  Sir  J.  Gaspard 
Le  Marchant.  The  Home  Government  proceeded  to  carry  out 
their  comprehensive  railway  policy.  Its  main  feature  w\as  a 
trunk  line  from  Halifax  to  Pictou,  and  from  Truro  to  the  New 
Brunswick  frontier  as  a  link  in  the  future  intercolonial  railway. 
The  reciprocity  treaty  with  the  United  States  caused  some  dis- 
satisfaction in  the  maritime  provinces,  as  it  was  considered  that 
their  fisheries  were  thrown  open  to  the  Americans  without  an 
equivalent  compensation.  The  Howe  Government  sufifered 
considerably  through  the  intemperate  utterances  of  its  leader 
with  reference  to  a  breach  of  the  peace  which  had  occurred 
between  some  Catholic  and  Protestant  workmen.  A  general 
election  took  place  in  1856,  and  when  the  House  met  in  1857, 


496 


HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 


the  ministry  was  defeated  on  a  vote  of  want  of  confidence  by  a 
majority  of  seven.  Mr.  J.  W.  Johnson,  the  Conservative 
leader,  was  called  upon  to  construct  a  cabinet,  which  he  speedily 
accomplished.  * 

In  1858,  Sir  J.  Gaspard  Le  Marchant  retired  from  the  Gov- 
ernorship, and  was  succeeded  by  the  Earl  of  Mulgrave.  The 
same  year,  the  landing  of  the  first  Atlantic  telegraph  cable  was 
celebrated  with  much  enthusiasm  in  Halifax ;  but  the  rejoicings 
were  premature,  for  the  cable  soon  parted,  and  not  till  eight 
years  later  were  the  two  hemispheres  permanently  linked 
together  by  the  electric  wire. 

The  general  elections  of  1859  gave  the  Reform  party  a 
majority  of  two.  When  the  House  met,  in  1860,  after  a  brief 
struggle,  the   ministry  resigned,  and   a  Reform  Government 

came  into  power  with  Mr.  "Wil- 
liam Young  as  leader.  The  visit 
of  H.  R.  H.  the  Prince  of  Wales, 
was  celebrated  with  loyal  enthu- 
siasm. The  province  continued 
to  develop  its  internal  resources, 
especially  its  coal-mines.  At  the 
general  election  of  1863,  the 
Reform  Government  was  again 
defeated,  and  compelled  to  resign. 
Mr.  J.  W.  Johnson  again  became 
the  leader  of  a  Conservative 
ministry.  In  1864,  Sir  Richard 
Graves  MacDonnell  succeeded  as  Lieutenant-Governor  the 
Earl  of  Mulgrave,  who  had  retired  from  office. 

The  parliamentary  session  of  1864,  was  memorable  for  two 
important  measures  introduced  by  Dr.  Tupper.  The  first  of 
these  was  a  bill  re-organizing  the  school-system  of  the  prov- 
ince, and  greatly  increasing  the  efficiency  of  the  public  schools. 
Provision  was  made  for  assessments  for  school  purposes,  public 


SIR  R.  G.  MACDONNELL. 


*  It  -was  composed  of  J.  W.  Johnson,  Attomey-General ;  Dr.  Charles  Tupper, 
Provincial  Secretary ;  John  J.  Marshall,  Financial  Secretary ;  Staley  Brown, 
Receiver-General,  and  Martin  W.  Wilkins,  Solicitor-GeneraL 


NOVA  SCOTIA,   1834-1867. 


497 


aid  was  granted  to  schools  in  sparsely  settled  neighbourhoods, 
and  that  great  source  of  national  prosperity,  elementary  educa- 
tion, was  wisely  encouraged. 

The  second  important  meas- 
ure was  a  series  of  resolu- 
tions providing  for  a  union  of 
the  maritime  provinces.  This 
movement  was  soon  merged  in 
the  more  comprehensive  one 
for  the  federation  of  all  the 
provinces,  and  the  formation 
of  the  present  Dominion.  This 
project  had  long  engaged  the  , 
attention  of  British  and  colo- 
nial statesmen.  The  remark- 
able growth  and  prosperity  of 
the  United  States  after  their 
union  under  one  federal  gov- 
ernment, suggested  the  inquiry  whether  the  union  of  the 
remaining  British  provinces,  by  removing  commercial  restric- 
tions, and  promoting  intercolonial  trade  and  intercourse,  would 
not  produce  similar  benefits. 

Dr.  Tupper's  resolutions  resulted  in  the  holding  of  the  Char- 
lottetown  Conference,  in  September,  1864.  We  have  already 
recorded  the  important  consequences  of  the  conference,  and  of 
the  Quebec  Conference  by  which  it  was  followed.  The  confed- 
eration scheme,  received  with  favour  in  Canada,  met  with 
violent  opposition  in  all  the  maritime  provinces.    It  was  argued 


HON.  DR.   CHARLES  TUPPER.* 


*  The  Hon.  Charles  Tapper,  M.  D,,  is  a  member  of  an  old  U.  E.  Loyalist 
family,  connected  with  the  family  of  the  late  Sir  Isaac  Brock.  His  father  was 
the  Rev.  Charles  Tupper,  D.  D.,  of  Aylesford,  N.  S.  He  was  born  at  Amherst, 
N.  S.,  in  1821.  He  graduated  in  medicine  at  Edinburgh  University  in  1843. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Executive  Council  of  Nova  Scotia  from  1857  to  1860, 
and  from  1864  to  July  1,  1867,  during  the  latter  part  of  which  time  he  was 
Premier.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Confederation  Conferences,  and  was  created 
C.  B.  (Civil)  by  Her  Majesty,  1867.  In  1870,  he  became  President  of  the  Privy 
Council  of  Canada ;  in  1872,  Minister  of  Internal  Revenue,  and,  in  February, 
1873,  Minister  of  Customs.  He  resigned  with  Sir  John  A.  Macdonald's  ministry 
in  November,  1873. 

63 


498  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

that  the  delegates,  who  were  empowered  to  negotiate  a  legisla- 
tive union  of  the  seaboard  provinces,  had  surpassed  their 
authority  in  negotiating  the  wider  federal  union  of  all  the  prov- 
inces. It  was  also  asserted  that  no  adequate  compensation  was 
received  for  the  surrender  of  the  revenue  of  the  lower  prov- 
inces, which  were  dependent  on  the  local  Governments  for  local 
improvements.  The  anti-confederate  feeling  in  Nova  Scotia 
was  strong.  The  delegates  in  vain  endeavoured,  by  argument 
and  eloquence,  to  popularize  the  movement.  Mr.  Howe,  for- 
getful of  his  avowed  union  sentiments,  inveighed  with  tongue 
and  pen  against  confederation.  The  Government,  however, 
continued  faithful  to  the  pledges  given  at  the  Quebec  Confer- 
ence. A  re-action  in  favour  of  confederation  having  taken  place 
in  New  Brunswick,  delegates  were  appointed  in  Nova  Scotia, 
and  in  that  province,  to  co-operate  with  the  Canadian  delegates 
at  London,  during  the  winter  of  1866-67,  in  perfecting  the 
plan  of  the  federal  union  of  all  the  provinces.  Mr.  Howe  was 
there  to  oppose  the  scheme,  but  his  influence  was  powerless  to 
prevent  its  consummation.  It  received,  however,  certain 
modifications,  chiefly  in  the  way  of  increasing  the  subsidies  to 
the  local  governments.  These  negotiations  resulted  in  their 
agreement  to  the  terms  of  the  British  North  America  Act, 
which  united  the  foui*  provinces  into  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 


NEW  BRUNSWICK,  1784-1831.  499 


CHAPTER  XLH. 

NEW  BRUNSWICK,   1784-1831. 


Organization  of  Government  —  Colonel  Thomas  Carleton,  Governor,  1784  — 
St.  John  Incorx>oratecl,  1785  —  Frcdericton,  the   Capital  —  Political   Strife 

—  The  Timber-Trade  —  Great  Fire  at  Miramichi  —  The  Disputed  Territories 

—  Border  Troubles  —  Baltic  Timber  Dues. 

NEW  BRUNSWICK,  as  we  have  seen,  was  set  apart  as  a 
separate  province  in  1784.  Colonel  Thomas  Carleton, 
brother  of  Lord  Dorchester,  became  the  first  Governor.  He 
had  commanded  a  regiment  during  the  Revolutionary  War,  and 
was  deservedly  popular  with  the  loyalists.  He  arrived  at  Parr- 
town  on  Sunday,  November  21,  and  the  new  province  was  pro- 
claimed the  following  day.  The  Government  consisted  of  a 
Council  of  twelve  members,  which,  with  the  Governor,  pos- 
sessed both  executive  and  legislative  functions  ;  and  a  House  of 
Assembly  of  twenty-six  members.  The  first  Council  was 
composed  chiefly  of  United  Empire  Loyalists,  several  of  whom 
had  been  men  of  distinction  in  the  revolted  colonies.  Promi- 
nent among  these  were  Chief  Justice  Ludlow,  who  had  been  a 
Judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  New  York ;  Judge  Upham,  a 
graduate  of  Harvard  and  loyalist  colonel  of  dragoons ;  Judge 
Allen  and  Judge  Winslow,  both  colonels  in  the  loyalist  army  ; 
James  Putnam,  one  of  the  ablest  lawyers  in  America ;  and 
others  who  had  abandoned  large  estates  in  the  old  colonies.  On 
the  death  of  Judge  Putnam,  Judge  Saunders,  of  an  old  Cavalier 
family  in  Virginia,  entered  the  Council,  which,  with  this  change, 
continued  to  conduct  the  Government  for  several  years. 

In  1785,  Parrtown  became  incorporated  as  the  city  of  St. 
John.  It  was  thus  the  first,  and,  for  many  years,  the  only, 
incorporated  city  in  British  North  America.  The  first  session 
of  the  House  of  Assembly  was  held  in  St.  John  in  1786,  but 
two  years  later,  the   seat   of  government  was  transferred  to 


600  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

Fredericton,  eighty-five  miles  up  the  St.  John  Eiver,  as  being 
more  central  to  the  province,  and  in  order  to  secure  immunity 
from  hostile  attack  and  from  the  factious  or  corrupting  influence 
of  the  more  jDopulous  commercial  metropolis,  St.  John.  This 
change  was  said  to  be  an  imitation  of  the  policy  of  the  State  of 
New  York,  from  which  many  of  the  loyalist  refugees  had 
come,  which,  for  similar  reasons,  had  transferred  its  legislature 
to  Albany,  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  up  the  Hudson  from 
New  York  city. 

The  peace  and  harmony  which  were  anticipated  from  this 
removal  from  disturbing  influences  did  not,  however,  result. 
The  irrepressible  conflict  between  the  popular  Assembly  and 
the  Executive  Council,  which  took  place  in  the  other  provinces, 
was  destined  to  occur  also  in  New  Brunswick.  The  first  differ- 
ence arose  on  the  question  of  the  appropriation  of  revenues. 
The  Assembly  voted  to  its  members  the  payment  of  seven  and 
sixpence  per  day  for  the  session.  The  Governor  and  Council 
resisted  the  ai3prof)riation,  as  derogatory  to  the  dignity  of  the 
House.  The  Assembly  asserted  its  constitutional  right  to  con- 
trol the  revenues  —  which  was  the  jjoint  of  contention  in  all  the 
provinces.  It  therefore  "tacked"  this  special  vote  to  the 
appropriation  bill  for  the  general  expenses  of  the  province  — 
the  maintenance  of  roads,  bridges,  schools,  and  the  like.  The 
Colonial  Secretary,  on  appeal,  gave  judgment  against  the 
Assembly,  and  condemned  their  policy  of  "tacking"  the 
obnoxious  bill  to  that  of  the  general  appropriation  for  the  year. 
The  Assembly,  however,  stood  firm,  and  for  three  years  (1796- 
1799)  no  revenue  and  appropriation  bills  were  passed.  The 
dead-lock  between  the  two  branches  of  the  legislature  was 
removed  by  their  mutual  concessions.  The  Assembly  agreed 
to  include  all  the  items  to  which  the  Council  agreed,  in  one  bill, 
and  the  Council  agreed  to  pass  the  salary  bill. 

For  nearly  twenty  years  Colonel  Carleton  administered  the 
afifiirs  of  the  province  with  great  tact  and  ability,  but  not  with- 
out occasional  collisions  with  the  Assembly,  which  seemed  to  be 
the  inevitable  fate  of  Colonial  Governors  in  those  days.  Under 
his  rule,  the  trade  of  the  province  was  greatly  developed.    This 


NE]V  BRUNSWICK,   1784-1831.  501 

was  especially  true  of  the  lumber-trade.  As  early  as  1778,  the 
magniticent  timber  on  the  St.  John  and  Miramichi  rivers 
attracted  English  enterprise  and  capital.  In  1781,  Jonathan 
Leavitt  launched  at  St.  John  the  pioneer  vessel  of  the  vast  fleet 
of  New-Brunswick-l)uilt  ships  which  subsequently  sailed  from 
that  port.  The  timber-trade  was  greatly  fostered  by  the 
demands  of  the  royal  fleets.  The  stately  pines  of  the  New 
Brunswick  forests,  each  fit  "to  be  the  mast  of  some  great 
admiral,"  bore  the  pennon  of  Great  Britain  in  many  a  stern 
sea-fight.  Immigration  to  the  country  was  also  fostered  by  the 
certainty  of  a  profitable  return-cargo. 

After  the  retirement  of  Colonel  Carleton  in  1803,  the  govern- 
ment was  administered  for  several  years  by  Presidents  of  the 
Executive  Council,  first,  by  the  Hon.  Gabriel  Ludlow,  and 
then  by  Judge  Edward  >Yinslow.  As  the  prospect  of  war  with 
the  United  States  became  more  imminent,  military  officers  of 
high  rank  and  large  experience  were  appointed  to  the  govern- 
ment of  the  several  provinces.  Major-General  Hunter  for  a 
time  administered  the  afiairs  of  New  Brunswick.  He  was  fol- 
lowed in  rapid  succession  by  six  other  military  Presidents.  The 
progress  of  the  war  stimulated  the  trade  of  the  colony.  The 
timber-trade  was  greatly  promoted  by  the  increased  demand 
for  shipping,  and  especially  in  consequence  of  the  heavy  duty 
imposed  on  Baltic  pine.  This  more  than  counterbalanced  the 
alarm  caused  by  American  privateers  hovering  on  the  coast  and 
preying  on  the  unprotected  shipping.  The  loyalty  and  military 
spirit  of  the  colony  was  shown  by  the  mustering  into  the  regular 
army  for  service  in  the  upper  provinces,  of  the  King's  Regiment 
of  New  Brunswick.  This  regiment,  except  a  part  despatched 
by  water,  marched  on  snow-shoes  through  the  wintry  woods  to 
Canada,  and  served  with  great  gallantry  during  the  war. 

The  administration  of  the  governmentby  military  Presidents, 
who  manifested  little  interest  in  the  civil  afiairs  of  the  province, 
was  a  cause  of  much  dissatisfaction.  The  Assembly,  therefore, 
petitioned  repeatedly  for  the  appointment  of  a  regular  Lieuten- 
ant-Governor. The  Home  authorities,  therefore,  in  1818, 
appointed  Major-General  George  Tracy  Smythe  to  administer 


502  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

the  government.  The  irrepressible  conflict  between  the  two 
branches  of  the  legislature  with  reference  to  the  control  of  the 
revenues  became  again  the  occasion  of  acrimonious  disputes, 
resulting  in  a  dead-lock.  The  Governor  dissolved  the  House, 
which  made  the  new  parliament  for  a  time  more  tractable.  In 
1823  Governor  Smythe  died,  and  was  succeeded  the  following 
year  by  Sir  Howard  Douglas.  In  the  interim,  the  government 
was  administered  by  Judge  Chipman,  and  on  his  death  by  the 
Hon.  James  Murray  Bliss.  The  right  to  this  position  was  un- 
successfully contested  by  the  Hon.  Christopher  Billop,  notwith- 
standing his  extreme  age.     He  was  eighty-six  years  old. 

The  first  census  of  New  Brunswick  was  taken  in  this  year, 
and  gave  a  population  to  the  province  of  74,000.  The  lumber- 
ing and  ship-ljuilding  interests,  however,  absorbed  almost  the 
entire  energies  of  the  people  to  the  serious  neglect  of  agricub 
ture,  so  that  the  population  were  largely  dependent  on  foreign 
breadstufis  for  the  means  of  subsistence.  Governor  Douglas 
greatly  promoted  the  internal  development  of  the  province,  the 
construction  of  roads  and  the  cultivation  of  the  soil.  He  en- 
couraged also  the  cause  of  higher  education,  and  through  his 
efibrts  the  University  of  King's  College,  Fredericton,  was  estab- 
lished. 

In  the  autumn  of  1825,  a  terrible  disaster  ovenvhelmed  the 
province.  A  long  drought  had  parched  the  forest  to  tinder. 
For  two  months  not  a  drop  of  rain  had  fallen,  and  the  streams 
were  shrunken  to  rivulets.  Numerous  fires  had  laid  waste  the 
woods  and  farms,  and  filled  the  air  with  stifling  smoke.  The 
Government  House  at  Fredericton  was  burned.  But  a  still 
greater  calamity  was  impending.  On  the  7th  of  October,  a 
storm  of  flume  swept  over  the  country  for  sixty  miles  —  from 
Miramichi  to  the  Bay  of  Chaleurs.  A  pitchy  darkness  covered 
the  sky,  lurid  flames  swept  over  the  earth,  consuming  the  forest, 
houses,  barns,  crops,  and  the  towns  of  Newcastle  and  Douglas, 
with  several  ships  upon  the  stocks.  Resistance  was  in  vain  and 
escape  almost  impossible.  The  only  hope  of  eluding  the  tornado 
of  fire  was  to  plunge  into  the  rivers  and  marshes,  and  to  cower 
in  the  water  or  ooze  till  the  waves  of  flame  had  jDassed.     The 


NEW  BRUXSIVICK,  1784-1831.  503 

roar  of  the  wind  aud  fire,  the  crackling  and  crashing  of  the 
pines,  the  bellowing  of  the  terrified  cattle,  and  the  glare  of  the 
conflagration  were  an  assemblage  of  horrors  sufficient  to  appall 
the  stoutest  heart.  "When  that  fatal  night  had  passed,  the 
thriving  towns,  villages  and  farms  over  au  area  of  five  thousand 
square  miles  were  a  charred  and  blackened  desolation.  A  mil- 
lion dollars'  worth  of  accumulated  property  was  consumed,  and 
the  loss  of  timl^er  was  incalculable.  One  hundred  and  sixty 
persons  perished  in  the  flames  or  in  their  efibrts  to  escape,  and 
hundreds  were  maimed  for  life.  The  generous  aid  of  the  sister 
provinces,  and  of  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States,  greatly 
mitigated  the  sufiTe rings  of  the  hapless  inhabitants,  made  home- 
less on  the  eve  of  a  rigorous  winter. 

Some  excitement  was  subsequently  occasioned  by  a  fillibuster- 
ing  raid  across  the  frontier,  between  Maine  and  New  Brunswick, 
for  the  purpose  of  claiming  a  portion  of  the  disputed  territory 
as  belonging  to  the  United  States.  The  question  was  one  which 
had  caused  much  trouble  ever  since  the  Revolutionary  War.  Sue- .. 
cessive  commissions  had  been  appointed  to  settle  the  bounda- 
ries, but  a  region  of  about  twelve  thousand  square  miles  on  the 
head-waters  of  the  Aroostook,  Allagash  and  Walloostook,  trib- 
utaries of  the  St.  John,  was  claimed  by  each  country.  In  1827, 
a  gasconading  braggart  named  Baker  made  a  dash  into  the 
Madawaska  district  and  raised  the  *'  stars  and  stripes  "  in  asser- 
tion of  the  American  ownership  of  the  soil.  The  British  loyal- 
ists and  French  settlers  promptly  resented  the  intrusion. 
Governor  Douglas  advanced  a  body  of  troops  to  the  frontier 
and  directed  the  sheriff  to  arrest  the  fillibustering  chief.  The 
sheriflT  captured  the  flag  and  lodged  Baker  a  prisoner  in  the  jail 
at  Fredericton.  He  was  brought  to  trial  and  fined  for  his 
ofience.  The  Governor  of  Maine  called  out  the  militia,  and 
thi-eatened  the  invasion  of  New  Brunswick  for  the  alleged  vio- 
lation of  international  peace.  The  royal  troops  were  on  the 
alert,  and  a  single  hasty  act  might  have  plunged  the  two  coun- 
tries into  war.  The  two  Governments,  however,  agreed  to  sub- 
mit the  question  in  dispute  to  the  King  of  the  Netherlands,  and 
so  the  excitement  gradually  died  out. 


504  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

The  commercial  development  of  New  Brunswick  had  been 
very  rapid.  Her  timber-trade  and  ship-building  industry  had 
been  fostered  by  the  exclusion  of  the  Americans  from  the 
British  "VYest  Indies.  An  important  trade  between  those  islands 
and  the  maritime  provinces  had  grown  up ;  sugar,  molasses, 
and,  we  are  sorry  to  say,  rum,  being  exchanged  in  large  quan- 
tities for  timber  and  fish.  In  1830,  however,  the  West  India 
trade  was  thrown  open  to  American  shipping,  greatly  to  the 
prejudice  of  the  British  colonies.  The  principles  of  free  trade 
were  being  extensively  adopted  in  Great  Britain,  one  obnoxious 
feature  after  another  in  the  tariff  being  assailed  and  removed. 
The  repeal  of  the  Baltic  timber  duties,  under  which  the  New 
Brunswick  trade  had  flourished,  was  strongly  urged  by  the  Brit- 
ish consumers.  Apprehensions  of  commercial  ruin  agitated  the 
province.  The  Assembly  sent  urgent  petitions  against  the  repeal 
of  the  Baltic  dues.  Sir  Howard  Douglas  was  in  England  at  the 
time,  giving  evidence  on  the  subject  of  the  disputed  territory. 
^He  ably  supported  the  efforts  of  the  province.  In  a  timely  pam- 
phlet, he  urged  the  impolicy  of  repealing  the  duties  in  the  face 
of  the  depression  caused  by  the  Mirimachi  fire  and  the  loss  of 
the  "West  India  trade.  The  repeal  bill  was  therefore  defeated. 
New  Brunswick  manifested  her  gratitude  to  the  Governor  by  the 
gift  of  a  handsome  service  of  plate.  Sir  Howard  Douglas,  how- 
ever, felt  constrained  to  resign  his  office,  as  his  fidelity  to  the 
interests  of  the  province  placed  him  in  opposition  to  the  Govern- 
ment which  had  appointed  him.  His  resignation  was  accepted, 
and  Major-General  Sir  Archibald  Campbell  was  appointed  his 
successor,  1831. 


NEW  BRUNSWICK,  1831-1867.  505 


CHAPTER  XLHI. 

NEW    BRUNSWICK,  1831-1867. 

Sir  Alexander  Campbell,  Governor,  1831  —  Crown-land  Grievances  —  Redressed 
by  the  Crown  —  Lemuel  Allan  Wilmot,  a  Popular  Tribune  —  Struggle  for 
Responsible  Government  —  It  is  granted  by  Sir  John  Harvey,  1S37  —  The 
Boundary  Dispute  —  Threatened  Outbreak  on  Maine  Frontier  —  The  Ashbur- 
ton  Treaty,  1842  —  Responsible  Government  Confirmed,  1848  —  Domestic 
Policy  —  Confederation  Negotiations. 

THE  inevitable  struggle  for  responsible  government  took 
place  in  New  Brunswick,  as  well  as  in  the  other  prov- 
inces. In  the  maritime  provinces,  however,  the  strife  was 
never  embittered  by  the  unhappy  appeal  to  arms  as  in  the  two 
Canadas.  The  "Family  Compact,"  in  New  Brunswick,  was 
neither  so  powerful  nor  so  exclusive,  as  in  the  other  provinces, 
and  more  fully  represented  the  interests  of  the  people. 

Sir  Alexander  Campbell,  the  Lieutenant-Governor,  like  his 
namesake  in  Nova  Scotia,. ^was  an  officer  of  stern  military 
instincts,  and  an  unflinching  champion  of  the  prerogatives  of 
the  crown  against  the  encroachments  of  popular  liberty.  In 
1832,  the  Legislative  Council  was  separated  from,  the  Executive 
Council,  but  the  latter  still  remained  an  exclusive  oligarchy, 
irresponsible  to  the  people,  and  indifferent  to  public  opinion. 
The  crown-land  department,  it  was  alleged,  favoured  the  gi-eat 
capitalists  and  lumber  operators,  to  the  disadvantage  of  the 
poorer  classes.  The  chief  commissioner  was  appointed  by  the 
crown,  and  was  completely  independent  of  parliamentary  con- 
trol. The  Government  also  possessed  sufficient  * '  casual  and 
territorial  revenue  "  to  defray  all  the  expenses  of  the  civil  list. 
The  Assembly  was  thus  deprived  of  any  means  of  control,  by 
means  of  a  money- vote,  over  the  Administration.  In  1832,  it 
requested,  by  resolution,  a  return  of  the  receipts  and  expendi- 
tures of  the  crown-land  fund.  The  request  was  discourteously 
refused.     The  Assembly,  thereupon,  appointed  delegates  to  lay 

64 


506  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

at  the  foot  of  the  throne  a  prayer  for  the  control  of  the  crown- 
land  revenue.  Mr.  Stanley,  the  Colonial  Secretary,  promised 
a  redress  of  the  grievances,  but  the  Governor  and  Council  still 
refused  to  made  the  surrender. 

The  Kova  Scotia  and  Xew  Brunswick  Land  Company,  com- 
posed of  English  capitalists,  formed  in  1831,  and  incorporated 
in  1834,  caused  grave  dissatisfaction  through  its  land  monopoly. 
It  received  a  grant  of  500,000  acres,  between  the  St.  John  and 
Miramichi  rivers,  for  the  sum  of  £56,000,  of  which  £21,000 
was  paid  down.  It  offered  liberal  inducements  to  settlers, 
military  and  civil ;  but  the  Assembly  objected  to  the  alienation 
of  so  large  a  jDroportion  of  the  public  lands  without  its  consent 
asked  or  received.  A  champion  of  the  rights  of  the  people 
now  appeared,  who  was  destined  to  lead  his  country  into  the 
enjoyment  of  constitutional  liberty.  Lemuel  Allan  'VYilmot 
was  descended  from  United  Empire  Loyalist  stock,  and  was 
naturally  allied  to  the  party  in  power.  He  won  a  brilliant 
rei3utation  as  a  lawyer ;  and  especially  for  his  eloquence  and 
skill  as  leader  of  the  Reform  j)arty  in  the  Assembly.  During 
the  parliamentary  session  of  1836,  Mr.  Wilmot  moved  an 
address  to  the  Governor  for  a  detailed  return  of  the  crown-land 
fund.  Sir  Ai-chibald  submitted  a  mere  general  statement. 
The  Assembly  sent  Messrs.  Wilmot  and  Crane  to  England  to 
request  that  the  control  of  the  jDublic  revenues  be  vested  in  the 
representatives  of  the  people.  The  Iving  favoured  the  prayer 
of  the  Assembly.  Lord  Glenelg,  Colonial  Secretary,  instructed 
the  Governor  and  Executive  Council  to  surrender  the  casual 
and  territorial  revenue  in  consideration  of  the  granting  by  the 
Assembly  of  a  liberal  permanent  civil-list.  Notwithstanding 
continuous  and  strenuous  opposition,  the  Government  w^as 
obliged  to  yield,  and  the  immense  crown-land  revenues  came 
uuder  the  direct  control  of  the  people's  representatives.  The 
stm'dy  Governor,  however,  declined  to  sign  the  obnoxious  civil- 
list  bill.  His  resignation  w^as,  therefore,  accepted,  and  Sir 
John  Harvey  was  appointed  as  his  successor,  1837.  Under  the 
conciliatory  policy  and  constitutional  rule  of  the  new  Governor, 
harmony  was  at  length  restored  between  all  the  branches  of  the 


NEW  BRUNSWICK,  1831-1867  507 

legislature.  Mr.  Crane  was  called  to  the  Executive  Council. 
Mr.  "VVilmot  was  made  a  Queen's  Counsellor.  Lord  Gleuelg's 
portrait  was  placed  above  the  Speaker's  chair  in  the  Assembly 
Chamber  at  Fredericton,  where  it  still  hangs,  —  a  commemora- 
tion of  the  triumph  of  the  princijole  of  responsible  government 
in  the  jirovince  of  New  Brunswick. 

The  dispute  as  to  the  New  Brunswick  frontier  was  not  yet 
settled.  The  King  of  the  Netherlands,  to  whom  the  decision 
had  been  referred,  had  given  the  lion's  share  of  the  debatable 
ground  to  the  United  States.  That  country,  however,  refused 
to  be  bound  by  the  award.  Lawless  persons  invaded  the  dis- 
jDuted  territory  to  cut  timber ;  armed  collisions  occuiTcd ;  and 
the  frontier  settlements  were  ablaze  with  excitement.  Gov- 
ernor Fairfield  of  Maine,  ordered  eighteen  hundred  militia  to 
the  border,  and  called  upon  the  State  for  ten  thousand  men,  — 
horse,  foot,  and  artillery.  Sir  John  Harvey,  the  Govenior  of 
New  Brunswick,  asserted  by  proclamation  the  right  of  Great 
Britain  to  protect  the  disputed  territory,  and  sent  two  regi- 
ments to  watch  the  Maine  militia.  Volunteers  flocked  to  the 
British  standard.  The  legislature  of  Nova  Scotia,  amid  an 
unwonted  scene  of  patriotic  enthusiasm,  and  with  an  outburst 
of  hearty  British  cheers,  voted  £100,000  for  the  defence  of  the 
frontier,  and  placed  a  strong  force  of  militia  at  the  disposal  of 
the  military  authorities. 

Considerable  excitement  was  roused  in  the  United  States. 
That  belHgerent  statesman,  Daniel  Webster,  declared  that  the 
American  government  should  seize  the  disputed  property  unless 
Great  Britain  would  abide  by  the  treaty  of  1783.  President 
Tan  Buren,  however,  with  praiseworthy  moderation,  advocated 
the  peaceable  arrangement  of  the  difficulty.  General  AVinfield 
Scott  was  sent  to  the  borders  to  settle  the  dispute.  He  coun- 
termanded all  hostile  demonstrations,  and  opened  a  friendly 
correspondence  with  the  British  Governor,  who  had  been  an 
old  antagonist  at  Stony  Creek  and  Lundy's  Lane. 

Both  parties  now  withdrew  from  the  contest,  and  referred 
the  matter  to  Lord  Ashburton  and  Daniel  Webster,  as  commis- 
sioners for  their  respective  countries.      The  award,  given  in 


508  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

1842,  yielded  the  larger  and  more  valuable  territory  to  the 
United  States,  to  the  intense  chagrin  of  the  colonists,  who  con- 
ceived that  their  rights  were  sacrificed  to  Imperial  interests. 
The  Ashburton  treaty  also  fixed  the  forty-fifth  parallel  of  lati- 
tude as  the  dividing  line  westward  from  the  disputed  territory 
to  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  the  forty-ninth  parallel  as  the  bound- 
ary from  the  Lake  of  the  Woods  to  the  Gulf  of  Georgia,  on 
the  Pacific.  The  central  line  of  the  gi'eat  lakes  and  their  con- 
necting rivers  completed  the  boundary.  An  important  article 
of  the  treaty  also  provided  for  the  extradition,  from  either 
country,  upon  sufficient  evidence  of  criminality,  of  persons 
charged  with  "  murder,  piracy,  arson,  robbery,  or  forgery." 

Sir  John  Harvey,  whose  administration  had  been  very  har- 
monious and  popular,  was  re-called  in  1841,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Sir  William  Colebrooke.  He  found  the  country  sufiering 
from  financial  embarrassment,  through  a  temporary  depression 
of  the  timber-trade.  The  pubhc  revenue,  for  a  time,  fell  off, 
and,  as  anticipated  by  Sir  Archibald  Campbell,  the  Assembly, 
on  obtaining  control  of  the  casual  and  territorial  fund,  had 
frittered  it  away  by  reckless  votes,  and  thus  injured  the  credit 
of  the  province.  A  Conservative  re-action  took  place,  and  the 
Reform  party  was  generally  beaten  at  the  polls  in  the  election 
of  1842.  Serious  election  riots  also  occurred,  which  had  to  be 
sujDpressed  by  military  authority.  The  city  of  St.  John 
sufiered  much  from  destructive  fires  and  from  severe  commer- 
cial depression.  Much  excitement  and  very  disastrous  con- 
sequences resulted  from  the  bitter  strife  of  the  Eoman  Catholic 
and  Orange  factions.  This  culminated  in  a  desperate  riot  on 
1842.  the  12th  of  July.  Several  persons  were  killed  and 
many  more  wounded,  and  fellow-citizens  were  divided  into  hos- 
tile camps  on  account  of  differences  as  to  their  religion,  the 
common  teachings  of  which  were  of  peace  on  earth  and  good- 
will to  men. 

Although  the  Conservative  Assembly  had  endorsed  the  claim 
of  the  Governor  to  make  crown  appointments  independent  of 
popular  control,  yet  it  strenuously  objected  to  his  first  appoint- 
ment, that  of  his  son-in-law,  Mr.  Reade,  to  be  Provincial  Sec- 


NEIV  BRUNSWICK,  1831-1867.  509 

retary,  on  the  death,  in  1844,  of  the  Hon.  Wm.  Odcll,  who  had 
held  that  office  since  1818.*  Mr.  Wilmot  urged  the  constitu- 
tional principle  that  the  ministers  of  the  crown  should  be 
directly  responsible  to  the  people.  The  Assembly,  however, 
was  not  prepared  for  its  adoption.  In  1847,  Earl  Gray,  the 
Colonial  Secretary,  in  a  despatch  to  Sir  John  Ilarvcy,  Governor 
of  Nova  Scotia,  had  defined  the  theory  of  responsible  govern- 
ment regarded  at  the  Colonial  Office  as  applicable  to  the 
provinces.  He  laid  down  the  principles  that  the  Executive 
Councillors,  who  directed  the  policy  of  the  Government,  should 
hold  office  only  while  they  retained  the  confidence  of  the  House, 
and  that  all  Government  officials  should  be  excluded  from  either 
branch  of  the  Legislature.  It  was  deemed  by  the  Reform  party 
of  Kew  Brunswick  a  fitting  occasion  to  introduce  these  sound 
principles  into  the  government  of  that  province.  In  the  session 
of  1848,  therefore,  Mr.  Charles  Fisher  introduced  a  resolution, 
asserting  their  application  as  the  rule  of  the  province.  The 
resolution  was  carried,  by  a  union  of  both  parties,  with  a 
large  majority,  and  responsible  government  was  fully  and 
finally  established  in  New  Brunswick. 

Sir  "William  Colebrooke  was  this  year  appointed  Governor  of 
British  Guiana.  He  was  succeeded  in  New  Brunswick  by  Sir 
Edmund  "Walker  Head,  who  was  the  first  civilian  regularly 
appointed  as  the  Queen's  representative  in  the  province.  Under 
his  administration,  the  country  continued  to  j)rosper,  developing 
her  internal  resources  and  extending  her  foreign  commerce. 

In  1853  was  consecrated  Christ  Church  Cathedral,  Frederic- 
ton.  The  diocese  of  Nova  Scotia  originally  included  all  the 
British  possessions  on  the  continent.  It  was  subsequently 
divided  by  the  formation  of  the  bishoprics  of  Quebec,  Toronto, 
and  Newfoundland.  In  1845,  New  Brunswick  was  separated 
from  the  parent  see,  and  the  Eev.  John  Medley,  D.  D.,  Pre- 
bendary of  Exeter  Cathedral,  became  first  bishop  of  Frederic- 
ton.  '  The  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  greatly 

*  Hia  father,  the  Hon.  and  Rev.  Jonathan  Odell,  was  the  first  Provincial 
Secretary  of  New  Brunswick.  Father  and  son  held  the  office  for  the  long 
period  of  sixty  years. 


510 


HISTORY  OF  CANADA, 


fostered  and  stimulated  the  growth  of  the   Anglican  Church 
in  the  province   of  New  Brunswick.     The  Cathedral  Church 
is  one  of  the  most  chaste  and  elegant  examj^les  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal   architecture    in   the 
Dominion.* 

In  1854,  the  Hon.  J. 
H.  T.  Manners-Sutton 
became  Lieutenant-Gov- 
ernor of  New  Brunswick, 
vice  Sir  Edmund  Walker 
Head  promoted  to  the 
Governor-Generalship  of 
Canada.  Public  atten- 
tion continued  for  several 
years  to  be  occupied  with 
the  project  of  the  Inter- 
colonial Eailway,  and 
with  the  agitations  which 
its  varied  vicissitudes 
produced.  Delegates 
were  sent  to  England,  to 
the  United  States,  and  to 

CHRIST  CHURCH  CATHEDRAL,  FREDERICTON,  N.  B.    „  ,  -      ,         ,„  „ 

Canada ;  but  while  rail- 
way construction  within  the  province  was  extended,  the  larger 
scheme  received  indefinite  postponement.  It  required  the 
political  union  of  the  provinces  to  bring  about  the  construction 
of  this  essential  bond  of  commercial  and  social  intercourse. 

Considerable  irritation  was  felt  at  the  interference  of  the  Home 
Colonial  Office  in  what  were  considered  matters  of  domestic 
concern.  A  trade  protection  party  in  the  Assembly  introduced 
a  protective  tariff  in  favour  of  home  industries,  and  voted 
bounties  to  the  fishing  interests.  This  being  opposed  to  the 
free-trade  policy  of  Great  Britain,  called  forth  a  vigorous  pro- 
test from  Lord  Gray,  the  Colonial  Secretary.     The  Assembly 


*  It  cost  over  $80,000,  and  was  consecrated  free  of  debt  —  principally  through 
the  liberality  of  bountiful  friends  in  England.  Its  seats  are  aU  free  and  un- 
reserved, as  are  those  of  sixty-four  other  churches  in  the  diocese. 


NEIV  BRUNSWICK,  1S31-1867.  511 

became  exceedingly  restive  under  what  it  called  the  "despotism 
of  DoAvning  Street,"  but  the  more  Conservative  Council  rejected 
the  bounty  bill,  and  thus  brouglit  about  the  re-action  of  quiet. 

The  visit  of  the  Prince  of  Wales,  in  1860,  called  forth  the 
patriotism  of  the  people.  The  city  of  the  U.  E.  Loyalists 
worthily  sustained  the  reputation  of  its  founders  by  the  enthu- 
siastic welcome  it  gave  the  heir-apparent  to  the  British  crown. 
Nor  was  that  patriotism  less  loyally  manifested  the  following 
year,  when  the  agitations  arising  out  of  the  "Trent  affair" 
threatened  the  rupture  of  peace  between  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States.  During  the  winter,  when  the  navigation  of  the 
St.  Lawrence  was  closed,  a  portion  of  the  British  troops,  in- 
tended for  the  defence  of  Canada,  were  forwarded  on  sledges, 
with  their  stores  and  materiel  of  war,  through  the  snow-laden 
forests  of  New  Brunswick  —  another  demonstration  of  the 
necessity  for  an  intercolonial  railway. 

In  1862,  the  Hon.  A.  Gordon  succeeded  the  Hon.  J.  H.  T. 
Manners-Sutton  as  Governor  of  New  Brunswick.  The  confed- 
eration scheme  of  1864  became  the  engrossing  subject  of  public 
discussion.  The  action  of  the  delegates  at  the  Quebec  Confer- 
ence was  promptly  repudiated.  The  New  Brunswick  Assembly 
being  on  the  eve  of  dissolution,  it  was  deemed  advisable  that  a 
new  parliament  should  be  elected  on  the  single  issue  of  confed- 
eration. The  result  was  its  unmistakable  condemnation.  Not  a 
.  single  member  of  the  Quebec  delegation  was  elected.  An  anti- 
confederate  government  was  formed,  under  the  Hon.  A.  J. 
Smith  and  George  L.  Hatheway,  1865.  The  Legislative  Coun- 
cil, however,  was  strongly  in  favour  of  the  scheme.  The  influ- 
ence, of  the  Imperial  Government  was  invoked  on  behalf  of 
confederation.  At  the  parliamentary  session  of  1866,  an  urgent 
despatch  from  Mr.  Cardwell,  the  Colonial  Secretary,  was  sub- 
mitted, expressing  the  strong  desire  of  Her  Majesty's  Govern- 
ment for  the  union  of  the  provinces.  A  dramatic  effect  was 
given  to  the  discussion  by  the  coincident  Fenian  invasion  of  the 
provinces.  The  Legislative  Council  passed  an  address,  express- 
ing the  desire  that  the  Imperial  Government  would  carry  out 
the  Quebec  scheme.     Governor  Gordon  heartily  endorsed  theiu 


512  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

action.  The  Smith  ministry,  finding  itself  opposed  to  both 
Governor  and  Council,  resigned,  and  Mr.  Tilley  was  again 
called  to  the  head  of  affairs.  A  popular  re-action  in  favour  of 
confederation  took  place.  A  general  election  resulted  in  a  large 
majority  of  supporters  of  the  Tilley  administration.  Union 
resolutions  were  triumphantly  passed,  and  Union  delegates  pro- 
ceeded to  London  to  complete  the  scheme  which  should  bring 
New  Brunswick  into  the  confederation  of  the  British  North 
American  provinces. 


PRIXCE  EDWARD  ISLAND.  513 


CHAPTER    XLIV. 

PRINCE    EDWARD    ISLAND. 

Early  History  —  British  Rule,  1763  —  Divided  by  Lottery,  1767  —  Organization 
of  Government,  1770  —  Quit-rent  Claim  —  Rival  Governors,  1786  —  Slow- 
Development —  Change  of  Name,  1798  —  Evils  of  Absenteeism — Governor 
Smith's  Despotic  Administration  —  The  Land  Question  —  Arbitration  Scheme 
—  Confederation  Rejected,  1867  —  Railway  Construction  —  Enters  Dominion, 
1873  —  Land  Question  Settled. 

PRINCE  EDWARD  ISLAND,  known  till  1798  as  St.  John's 
Island,  is  supposed  to  have  been  discovered  by  Cabot  in 
one  of  his  early  voyages.  For  over  two  centuries  it  remained 
iincolonized,  save  as  a  French  fishing-station.  "WTien  Acadia 
and  Newfoundland  were  ceded  to  England  by  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht,  many  of  the  French  inhabitants  removed  to  the  fertile 
island  of  St.  John.  This  population  was  still  further  increased, 
on  the  expulsion  of  the  Acadians  in  1755,  by  fugitives  from 
that  stern  edict.  By  the  treaty  of  1763,  St.  John's  Island, 
with  the  whole  of  Canada  and  Cape  Breton,  passed  into  the 
possession  of  the  British.  It  continued  to  form  part  of  the 
extensive  province  of  Nova  Scotia  till  1770.  It  was  surveyed 
by  Captain  Holland,  and  reported  to  contain  365,400  acres  of 
land,  all  but  10,000  of  which  was  fit  for  agriculture.  It  was 
divided  into  allotments,  which  were  distributed  by  the  Lords 
of  Trade  and  Plantations,  by  lottery,  among  officers  of  the 
army  and  navy,  and  other  persons  conceived  to  have  claims 
upon  the  crown,  1767.  Certain  duties  of  settlement,  and  the 
payment  of  a  small  annual  quit-rent  were  stipulated ;  but 
neither  received  much  practical  observance.  Most  of  the 
grantees  sold  or  alienated  their  land,  so  that  the  bulk  of  it  soon 
fell  into  the  hands  of  a  few  absentee  proprietors.  The  grantees 
petitioned  for  separation  from  Nova  Scotia,  and  for  the  establish- 
ment of  a  distinct  government.  This  petition  was  granted  in 
1770,  when  there  were  only  five  resident  proprietors,  and  a 
65 


514  HISTORY  OF  CAXADA, 

hundred  and  fifty  families  in  the  island.  Captain  William 
Patterson,  one  of  the  grantees,  was  appointed  first  Governor. 
He  arrived  in  1770,  and  three  years  later  the  first  parliament 
sat  in  Charlottetown.  The  Government  consisted  of  a  Lieu- 
tenant-Governor, a  combined  Executive  and  Legislative  Coun- 
cil, and  a  Legislative  Assembly  of  eighteen  members.  The 
new  province  was  soon  involved  in  financial  difficulties.  Its 
revenues  were  principally  derivable  from  quit-rents  ;  but,  as 
these  were  not  paid,  the  Governor  employed  the  £3,000  voted 
by  the  House  for  public  buildings  to  pay  the  very  moderate 
civil-list.  In  1775,  two  American  cruisers  pillaged  the  infant 
capital,  and  carried  off  several  of  its  official  persons  prisoners. 
General  Washington,  however,  disavowed  the  act,  and  restored 
the  prisoners  and  plunder. 

The  quit-rent  claims  continued  to  be  the  occasion  of  much 
contention.  In  1780,  Governor  Patterson  decided  to  enforce 
their  payment,  and  a  number  of  estates  were  sold  for  little 
more  than  the  taxes  due.  The  time  was  inopportune.  A  great 
war  was  in  progress,  and  English  capitalists  would  not  invest 
in  colonial  property  which  might  be  alienated  from  the  crown 
by  the  next  treaty  of  peace.  The  Governor  also  acquired  large 
tracts  of  the  escheated  lands  for  the  benefit  of  himself  and  his 
friends.  The  proprietors,  therefore,  petitioned  against  his 
action,  and  the  Home  authorities,  in  1784,  disallowed  the  sales, 
and  restored  the  lands  to  their  previous  owners  on  payment  of 
the  expenses  incurred  by  the  recent  purchasers.  Governor 
Patterson  refused  to  be  guided  by  the  directions  of  the  Colonial 
Office,  twice  dissolved  the  House,  and,  in  1786,  in  an  Assembly 
packed  with  his  friends,  confirmed  the  forced  sales  under  the 
quit-rent  claims.  The  King  disallowed  the  bill,  recalled  the 
Governor,  and  appointed  Colonel  Fanning  his  successor.  A 
struggle  for  power  ensued.  Governor  Patterson  refused  to 
yield  his  authority.  Colonel  Fanning  asserted  his  ;  and,  for  six 
months,  they  distracted  the  island  with  their  rival  claims.  In 
the  spring  of  1787,  Patterson  was  peremptorily  recalled,  and 
retired  into  obscurity.  By  a  compromise,  the  escheated  lands, 
which  had  greatly  increased  in  value,  remained  in  the  possession 


PRINCE  EDWARD  ISLAND.  515 

of  their  purchasers,  and  the  quit-rent  claims  continued  still  in 
abeyance. 

Colonel  Fanning  continued  to  administer  the  government 
for  the  prolonged  period  of  eighteen  years.  The  growth  of 
population,  however,  was  slow.  In  1798,  after  thirty-five 
years'  British  occupancy,  it  amounted  to  only  4,372.  In  this 
year,  the  name  of  the  colony  was  changed,  out  of  compliment 
to  Edward,  Duke  of  Kent,  to  Prince  Edward  Island.  The 
proprietary  system,  and  the  apathy  of  absentee  owners,  greatly 
retarded  its  development.  Out  of  sixty  new  townships,  twen- 
ty-three had  not  a  single  settler,  and  twelve  more  had  only 
thirty-six  families.  The  absentee  proprietors  held  the  land 
only  for  speculation.  The  Assembly,  therefore,  petitioned  the 
King  to  enforce  the  conditions  of  settlement  and  payment  of 
quit-rents,  and  passed  an  act  re-investing  the  forfeited  land  in 
the  crown.  The  proprietary  party,  however,  had  sufficient  in- 
fluence w^th  the  Colonial  Office  to  procure  the  disallowing  of 
the  action  of  the  Assembly.  A  compromise  was  effected,  in 
1802,  whereby  proprietors  having  the  stipulated  number  of 
settlers  on  their  land  might  commute  the  thirty-two  years'  quit- 
claim rent  now  due  by  a  five  years'  payment.  A  similar  com- 
promise was  effected  with  other  proprietors.  As  a  result  of 
this  arrangement  about  one-third  of  the  island  changed  hands 
in  the  next  four  years,  and  active  settlement  took  place. 
Among  the  most  energetic  proprietors  was  the  Earl  of  Selkirk, 
the  founder  of  the  Red  River  Settlement,  to  be  shortly  de- 
scribed. During  the  early  years  of  the  century,  beginning 
with  1803,  he  transferred  not  less  than  four  thousand  hardy 
Highlanders  from  his  Scottish  estates  to  this  fertile  island,  and 
contributed  vastly  to  its  agricultural  development. 

In  1804,  Governor  Fanning  was  succeeded  in  office  by 
Colonel  Des  Barres,  whose  administration  was  one  of  steady 
colonial  progress,  the  war  of  1813-14  not  perceptibly  affecting 
the  insular  community.  In  1813,  Mr.  Charles  Douglas  Smith 
became  Governor.  His  administration  was  one  of  irresponsible 
and  unconstitutional  despotism.  He  seems  to  have  resolved  to 
govern  without  a  parliament.     After  cavalierly  proroguing  the 


516  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

House  in  1814,  he  did  not  summon  it  again  till  1817.  Three 
successive  parliaments  proving  intractable,  were  promptly  dis- 
solved. For  ten  years  the  province  was  virtually  without  par- 
liamentary govemnrent.  Yet  the  Governor  was  emphatically  a 
man  of  action.  He  attempted  the  collection  of  the  quit-rents 
by  seizure  and  forced  sales.  So  much  property  and  produce 
were  thrown  upon  the  markets,  that  many  farmers  were  almost 
ruined  by  their  efforts  to  pay  this  obnoxious  tax,  so  long  fallen 
into  desuetude.  Public  indignation,  denied  expression  through 
parliamentary  channels,  found  vent  in  tumultuous  popular 
assemblies.  Charges  of  maladministration  were  formulated 
against  the  Governor,  and  sent  to  England  by  Mr.  Steward,  a 
popular  tribune,  who  only  escaped  imprisonment  by  precipitate 
flight.  The  petition  of  Mr.  Steward  received  prompt  consider- 
ation. Governor  Smith  was  recalled,  and  Colonel  Ready  was 
charged  with  the  administration  in  his  place. 

Under  Governor  Read}',  growth  of  commerce,  construction 
of  roads,  and  improvement  of  agriculture,  attested  the  progress 
of  the  country.  The  emancipation  of  Roman  Catholics  from 
civil  disabilities,  1830,  one  year  after  the  similar  act  in  Great 
Britain,  demonstrated  the  liberal  character  of  its  legislature. 

Colonel  Aretus  W.  Young,  who  succeeded  Governor  Ready, 
in  1831,  died,  greatly  respected,  in  1835.  His  successor. 
Colonel  Sir  John  Harvey,  was  transferred,  at  the  end  of  a  year, 
to  the  government  of  New  Brunswick.  Sir  Charles  A.  Fitz  Roy, 
who  assumed  the  Governorship  in  1837,  attempted  to  grapple 
with  the  land  question.  The  English  landlords  were  draining 
the  land  of  its  wealth,  and  contributing  almost  nothing  to  its 
expenses.  The  greater  portion  of  the  island  had  been  alienated 
to  absentee  proprietors,  who  left  it  in  a  wilderness  state  for  the 
reversionary  interest  of  its  increased  value  through  the  labour 
of  others.  The  House  proposed  a  heavy  penal  tax  on  wild 
land,  and  the  escheating  to  the  crown  of  the  forfeited  estates ; 
but  the  Colonial  Secretary  rejected  the  proposal. 

From  1841  to  1847,  the  government  of  the  island  was 
administered  by  Sir  Henry  Vere  Huntley,  not  without  some 
friction  with  its  officials.      He  was  succeeded  by  Sir  Donald 


PRIXCE  EDWARD  ISLAXD.  517 

Campbell,  who  was  received  with  enthusiasm  by  his  Highland 
countrymen.  The  Assembly  had  long  been  desirous  for  respon- 
sible government,  and  the  control  of  the  public  revenues.  It 
now  oifered  to  grant  a  sufficient  civil-list  on  their  surrender, 
and  refused  to  vote  supplies  till  its  demand  was  conceded.  The 
Colonial  Office,  at  length,  granted  the  petition ;  but  Sir  Donald 
Campbell  dying,  in  1850,  it  was  reserved  for  his  successor,  Sir 
Alexander  Bannerman,  to  carry  into  effect  that  change  of  con- 
stitution. Postal  and  revenue  reforms  were  effected,  and  in  the 
session  of  1853,  the  parliamentary  suffrage  was  made  universal. 
In  1854,  Sir  Dominick  Daly  became  Governor,  and,  the  same 
year,  the  island  entered  into  the  reciprocity  treaty  with  the 
United  States,  to  the  great  stimulus  of  its  trade  and  general 
prosperity.  With  reference  to  the  land  question,  the  Colonial 
Secretary  submitted  the  consideration,  that  however  improper 
the  original  lottery-grants,  the  lapse  of  nearly  a  century  with 
the  uninterrupted  inheritance  and  transfer  of  these  lands,  ren- 
dered it  impossible  to  ignore  the  rights  of  the  present  pro- 
prietors, and  recommended  the  purchase  of  those  rights  by  the 
Government.  The  Assembly  asked  an  Imperial  guarantee  of 
the  loan  of  £100,000  for  this  purpose,  but  the  request  was 
declined. 

In  1859,  Sir  Dominick  Daly  was  succeeded  by  George  Dun- 
das,  Esq.  The  land  question  still  continued  to  engross  public 
attention.  Sir  Samuel  Cunard  and  other  proprietors  suggested  to 
the  Colonial  Secretary  the  appointment  of  an  Imperial  commis- 
sion to  adjust  the  conflicting  claims  of  the  landlords  and  tenants 
of  the  proprietary  lands.  To  this  the  Assembly  agreed,  and 
the  Hon.  Joseph  Howe,  Hon.  J.  H.  Gray,  and  John  W.  Ritchie, 
Esq.,  were  appointed  on  behalf,  respectively,  of  the  tenants, 
the  crown,  and  the  proprietors.  After  exhaustive  investigation, 
they  recommended  the  purchase  of  the  proprietary  lands  *  on 
equitable  terms,  to  be  fixed  by  arbitration,  and  their  re-allot- 
ment at  as  low  rates  as  possible,  to  the  tenants  and  to  new 
settlers.     The  Assembly  accepted  the  recommendations  of  the 

*  The  Government  Lad  already  purchased  two  large  estates  —  the  Worrell 
and  Selkirk  estates  —  embracing  153,000  acres. 


518  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

report,  but  the  Colonial  Office,  in  the  interest  of  the  proprietary, 
rejected  the  report  of  the  commissioners  as  exceeding  their 
authority.  Thus  this  promising  plan  for  the  settlement  of  this 
vexed  question  fell  to  the  ground. 

To  conclude  the  subject,  we  will  narrate  the  final  adjustment, 
although  out  of  chronological  order.  When  the  province 
entered  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  in  1873,  a  loan  of  $800,000 
was  guaranteed  it  to  purchase  and  re-allot  these  proprietary 
estates.  In  1875,  commissioners  were  appointed  to  determine 
the  value  of  the  estates  whose  sale,  under  the  jDro visions  of  the 
Act,  was  made  compulsory.  Thus,  at  length,  after  long  years 
of  strenuous  endeavour,  and  at  a  large  money  cost,  this  cen- 
tury-old grievance  and  incubus  upon  the  prosperity  of  the  prov- 
ince was  removed. 

We  return  to  take  up  the  interrupted  thread  of  this  colonial 
history.  In  1859,  Sir  Dominick  Daly  was  succeeded  as  Gov- 
ernor by  George  Dundas,  Esq.  The  visit  of  the  Prince  of 
Wales,  in  1860,  gave  a  social  and  patriotic  impulse  to  the  prov- 
ince. The  loyalty  of  the  little  colony  was  shown  during  the 
' '  Trent"  excitement  the  following  year,  by  its  organizing  a  volun- 
teer force  of  over  a  thousand  men.  To  Charlottetown  belongs 
the  honour  of  being  the  birthplace,  in  a  sense,  of  the  confedera- 
tion movement.  The  conference  at  that  place  in  1864,  and  that 
at  Quebec,  to  which  it  gave  place,  have  been  already  described. 
On  the  return  of  the  Prince  Edward  Island  delegates  from 
Quebec,  public  opinion  was  found  strongly  opposed  to  con- 
federation. In  the  legislative  session  of  1865,  an  anti-confed- 
erate resolution  was  passed  by  a  vote  of  twenty-three  to  five, 
and  the  following  session,  a  stronger  one  by  vote  of  twenty-one 
to  seven. 

To  maintain  the  unity  of  our  account  of  the  province,  we 
will  continue  its  history  to  the  period  of  its  admission  into  the 
Dominion  in  1873.  In  1870,  W.  C.  F.  Robinson,  Esq.,  became 
Governor.  The  growing  internal  trade  and  travel  of  the  island, 
and  the  lack  of  stone  to  make  macadamized  roads,  created  a 
necessity  for  railway  communication.  In  the  legislative  session 
of  1871,  a  bill  was  passed  for  the  construction  of  the  Prince 


PRmCB  EDWARD  ISLAND.  5I9 

Edwai'd  Island  Railway.  But  the  Government  found  difficulty 
in  raising  the  money  for  the  undertaking.  The  province  natur- 
ally looked  to  the  Dominion  for  assistance.  A  general  election 
in  1873  resulted  in  the  return  of  a  legislature  favourable  to 
union.  A  deputation  visited  Ottawa,  which  effected  conditions 
of  union  mutually  acceptable  to  the  Dominion  and  the  province. 
The  island  surrendered  its  revenues,  and  the  Dominion  assumed 
the  cost  of  the  railway,  the  civil  list,  and  public  administration. 
It  also  advanced  the  sum  of  $800,000  to  purchase  the  pro- 
prietary estates,  assumed  a  debt  computed  at  $4,701,050, 
and  agreed  to  pay  annually  $30,000,  and  a  subsidy  of  eighty 
cents  per  head  on  an  estimated  population  of  94,021.  The 
island  was  to  receive  a  representation  of  six  members  in  the 
House  of  Commons  and  four  in  the  Senate.  These  terms  were 
accepted  in  the  Assembly  by  a  vote  of  twenty-seven  to  two. 
The  union  was  consummated  on  July  1,  1873,  and  was  cele- 
brated with  great  festivities  at  Charlottetown. 


520  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 


CHAPTER   XLV. 


CONFEDERATION   ACCOMPLISHED. 

Tlie  British  North  America  Act  passes  the  Imperial  Parliament,  March  28,  1867 
—  Provisions  of  the  New  Constitution  —  The  Dominion  Parliament  —  Legis- 
lative Representation  —  Respective  Jurisdiction  of  the  Dominion  and  Prov- 
inces —  The  Judiciary  —  Customs,  etc.  —  Local  Legislatures  —  Inauguration 
of  the  New  Constitution,  July  1  —  Titles  of  Honour  Conferred  —  First 
Cabinet  —  Elections  —  Failure  of  Commercial  Bank  —  A.ssa8si nation  of 
Thomas  D'Arcy  McGee,  M.  P.,  April  7,  1868  —  Sir  John  Young,  Governor- 
General,  vice  Lord  Monck  —  Anti-Confederation  Agitation  in  Nova  Scotia  — 
Petitions  for  Repeal  of  the  Union  —  Petitions  Refused  —  "  Better  Terms " 
Granted  Nova  Scotia  —  Hon.  Joseph  Howe  enters  Dominion  Cabinet. 

IN  the  maritime  provinces,  as  we  have  seen,  the  tide  of  popu- 
lar feeling  had  now  turned  strongly  in  favour  of  confed- 
eration. In  New  Brunswick,  the  anti-confederation  Govern- 
ment was  compelled  to  resign,  and  a  new  parliament,  elected 
with  express  reference  to  this  question,  declared  decidedly  for 
it.  In  Nova  Scotia,  Mr.  Howe's  eloquence  in  condemnation  of 
the  scheme  lost  its  spell,  and  his  opposition  in  the  lobbies  of  the 
Imperial  parliament  proved  equally  futile.  The  Canadian  and 
maritime  delegates  met  in  London,  in  December,  1866,  to  con- 
clude the  terms  of  the  union.  They  sat  continuously  at  the  West- 
minster Palace  Hotel,  from  the  4th  to  the  24th  of  the  month. 
The  result  of  the  conference  was  the  slight  modification  of  the 
provisions  of  the  Quebec  Resolutions,  chiefly  in  the  direction 
of  increasing  the  subsidies  to  the  local  governments.  The 
resolutions  were  transmitted  to  the  Colonial  Secretary,  and 
upon  them  was  based  the  Imperial  legislation  designed  to  give 
effect  to  the  union. 

On  the  7th  of  February,  the  Earl  of  Carnarvon,  the  Colonial 
1867.  Secretary,  introduced  the  British  North  America  Act 
into  the  House  of  Lords.  After  slight  modification  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  it  successfully  passed  through  its  different 


CONFEDERATION  ACCOMPLISnED.  521 

stages,  and,  on  the  28th  of  March,  received  the  royal  assent, 
and  became  the  law  of  the  empire.  The  following  day  was 
passed  the  Canada  Eailway  Loan  Act,  which  empowered  the 
Imperial  Government  to  guarantee  a  loan  of  three  million 
poimds  sterling  for  the  construction  of  the  Intercolonial  Rail- 
way, now  become  a  political,  as  well  as  a  commercial  and 
military  necessity  for  the  new  nationality. 

The  Act  of  Union  provides  that  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  as 
the  new  nation  was  named,  should  consist  of  the  provinces  of 
Upper  and  Lower  Canada  (designated,  respectively,  Ontario, 
and  Quebec),  New  Brunswick,  and  Nova  Scotia,  the  exist- 
ing limits  of  which  were  to  continue  undisturbed.  Provision 
was  also  made  for  the  future  admission  of  Prince  Edward 
Island,  the  Hudson  Bay's  Territory,  British  Columbia,  and 
Newfoundland,  with  its  dependency,  Labrador. 

The  following  are  the  chief  provisions  of  the  new  constitu- 
tion :  — 

The  executive  authority  is  vested  in  the  Queen,  in  whose 
name  run  all  legislative  acts,  civil  processes,  and  naval  and 
military  proclamations. 

The  Queen's  representative  in  Canada  is  the  Governor-Gen- 
eral, who  is  advised  and  aided  by  a  Privy  Council  of  thirteen 
members,  afterward  increased  to  fourteen,  constituting  the 
ministry,  who  must  be  sustained  by  a  parliamentary  majority. 

The  parliament  consists  of  two  chambers,  the  Senate  and  the 
House  of  Commons. 

The  Senate  was  at  first  to  be  composed  of  seventy-two  mem- 
bers,—  twenty-four  for  each  of  the  three  divisions,  Ontario, 
Quebec,  and  New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia.  On  the  admis- 
•  sion  of  Prince  Edward  Island,  Manitoba,  and  British  Columbia^ 
that  number  was  increased  to  seventy-eight,  and  may  be  still 
further  increased  to  a  maximum  of  eighty-two  on  the  admission 
of  Newfoundland.  The  members  are  appointed  by  the  Gov- 
ernor-General in  Council,  representing  the  crown,  and  hold 
their  seats  for  life,  subject  to  forfeiture  in  case  of  bankruptcy, 
conviction  of  crime,  treason,  or  taking  the  oath  of  allegiance 
to  any  foreign  power,  or  if  they  shall  cease  to  possess  the 


522  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

necessary  property  qualification,  —  the  possession  of  real  estate 
to  the  value  of  four  thousand  dollars,  and  residence  in  the 
province  (or,  if  inhabitants  of  Quebec,  in  the  district)  for 
which  they  are  appointed. 

The  Speaker  of  the  Senate  is  appointed  by  the  crown.  He 
may  vote  on  all  questions,  but  when  the  House  is  equally 
divided,  he  can  only  give  a  negative  vote. 

The  House  of  Commons,  as  first  constituted,  consisted  of 
one  hundred  and  eighty-one  members  :  eight}^-two  for  Ontario  ; 
sixty-five  for  Quebec ;  nineteen  for  Nova  Scotia,  and  sixteen 
for  New  Brunswick.  •  On  the  re-adjustment  of  representation 
in  accordance  with  the  census  of  1871,  after  the  admission  of 
Prince  Edward  Island,  Manitoba,  and  British  Columbia,  the 
number  of  representatives  was  increased  to  two  hundred  and 
six. 

This  representation  is  subject  to  future  re-adjustment  on  the 
following  basis  :  sixty-five  members  is  to  be  the  fixed  number 
for  Quebec ;  the  increased  representation  of  the  other  prov- 
inces is  to  bear  the  same  proportion  to  their  population  as 
sixty-five  bears  to  that  of  Quebec.  The  House  of  Commons  is 
elected  for  five  years  unless  sooner  dissolved.  It  elects  its 
own  Speaker,  who  can  vote  only  when  the  House  is  equally 
divided.  The  debates  may  be  in  either  English  or  French  ;  but 
the  proceedings  are  to  be  recorded  in  both  languages.  The 
property  qualification  of  members  was  fixed  at  five  hundred 
pounds  sterling,  as  was  also  that  for  members  of  the  local 
legislatures  of  Ontario  and  Quebec. 

All  bills  afiecting  taxation  or  revenue  must  originate  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  and  must  be  recommended  by  a  message 
from  the  Governor-General.  Bills  may  receive  the  assent  of 
the  Governor-General  directly  as  representing  the  Queen,  or 
may  be  reserved  for  Her  Majesty's  pleasure. 

The  jurisdiction  of  the  Dominion  parliament  extends  over 
the  public  debt,  expenditure  and  public  loans ;  treaties ;  cus- 
toms and  excise  duties ;  trade  and  commerce ;  navigation, 
shipping,  and  fisheries ;  lighthouses  and  harbours ;  the  postal, 
naval,  and  military  services  ;  public  statistics ;  monetary  insti- 


CONFEDERATION  ACCOMPLISnED.  523 

tutions,  banks,  banking,  currency,  coining,  and  insolvency; 
criminal  law,  marriage,  and  divorce ;  public  works,  railways, 
and  canals.  Where  there  is  common  jurisdiction  with  the  local 
legislatures,  as  in  the  encouragement  of  immigration  and  agri- 
culture, the  Acts  of  the  Dominion  parliament  are  of  paramount 
authority,  and  can,  in  case  of  antagonism,  supersede  the 
ordinances  of  the  inferior  legislatures. 

The  appointment  and  maintenance  of  the  Judges  of  the 
Superior,  District,  and  County  Courts  of  the  several  provinces, 
is  the  prerogative  and  duty  of  the  Governor  in  Council.  The 
Judges  hold  office  for  life,  or  till  forfeitirre  for  misconduct ; 
and  are  selected  from  the  bars  of  their  respective  provinces. 

The  duties  and  revenues  of  the  several  provinces  form  a 
consolidated  revenue  fund,  out  of  which  the  cost  of  the  public 
service  is  defray ed ,  as  well  as  the  suljsidies  to  the  provinces, 
and  the  specified  portions  of  their  debt  assumed  by  the  Domin- 
ion, and  special  appropriations.  All  revenues  derived  from 
public  lands,  timber  limits,  mines,  and  minerals,  belong  to  the 
several  j^rovinces  in  which  they  are  situated.  Between  all  the 
provinces  of  the  Dominion  there  is  free  trade  in  all  their  natural 
products,  raw  or  manufactured. 

The  chief  executive  officer  of  the  several  provinces  is  the 
Lieutenant-Governor,  who  is  appointed  by  the  Governor-Gen- 
eral in  Council,  acting  for  the  crown,  for  the  temi  of  five 
years.  The  local  legislatures  were  granted  constitutions  agree- 
able to  the  wishes  of  the  respective  jDrovinces. 

The  legislature  of  Ontario  consists  of  only  one  chamber,  the 
Legislative  Assembly.  It  was  constituted  at  first  with  eighty- 
two  members,  which  number  was  afterwards  increased  to 
eighty-eight,  elected  for  four  years. 

The  other  local  legislatures  consist  of  two  chambers,  a  Legis- 
lative Council  and  Legislative  Assembly.*  The  Acts  of  the 
local  legislatures  may  be  disallowed  by  the  Governor-General, 
for  sufficient  reason,  within  a  year  after  they  have  passed. 

The  local  legislatures  have  jurisdiction  over  direct  taxation ; 

*  The  Government  of  Manitoba  was  organized  with  a  second  chamber,  which 
was  afterwards  abolished. 


524  mSTORT  OF  caxada. 

provincial  loans ;  the  appointment  and  maintenance  of  provin- 
cial officers ;  the  management  of  provincial  lands,  prisons, 
hospitals,  and  asylums  ;  municipal  institutions ;  local  improve- 
ments ;  education,  and  matters  aflecting  property  and  civil 
rights. 

On  the  first  of  July,  by  royal  proclamation,  the  Act  of  Con- 
federation came  into  force,  and  with  the  parental  blessing  of 
the  mother  country,  the  Dominion  of  Canada  set  forth  on  its 
high  career.  On  that  day  the  new  constitution  was  formally 
inaugurated  at  Ottawa,  and  Lord  IMonck  was  sworn  in  as  the 
Governor-General  of  the  confederated  provinces.  He  after- 
wards signalized  Her  Majesty's  approval  of  the  union  by  con- 
ferring titles  of  honour  on  its  chief  promoters.  The  Hon. 
John  A.  Macdonald,  the  first  premier,  received  the  dignity 
of  knighthood,  and  the  Hon. 
Messrs.  Cartier,  Gait,  Rowland, 
]\Iacdougall,  Tupper,  and  Tilley, 
that  of  Companion  of  the  Bath. 
Sir  N.  F.  Belleau  became  Lieu- 
tenant-Governor of  Quebec,  and 
Major-General  Doyle,  Lieutenant- 
Governor  of  Nova  Scotia.  Mili- 
tary officers  administered  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  other  provinces  till 
July,  1868,  when  the  Hon.  L.  A. 

SIR  N.  F.  BELLEAU.'  ;  •     i.    J   T  •        4-  4. 

VVilmot  was  appointed  Lieutenant- 
Governor  of  New  Brunswick,  and  the  Hon.  W.  P.  Howland, 
Lieutenant-Governor  of  Ontario^ 

The  first  Privy  Council  of  the  Dominion  consisted  of  the 
following  members  : 

Hon.  A.  J.  F,  Blair,       .        .        .   President. 

Hon.  Sir  John  A.  Macdonald,       .  Minister  of  Justice. 

»  The  Hon.  Narcissus  Fortunat  Belleau,  Kt.,  was  horn  at  Quebec,  in  1808,  and 
was  educated  at  the  Quebec  Seminary.  He  was  mayor  of  the  city  from  1850- 
1853.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Legislative  and  Executive  Councils  of  Canada, 
and  successively  Minister  of  Agriculture  and  Keceiver-General,  holding  the 
latter  office  in  his  own  administration  (Belleau-Macdonald  Government),  at 
the  union  of  the  provinces.    He  was  knighted  by  the  Prince  of  Wales,  1860. 


CONFEDERATION  ACCOMPLISHED.  525 

Hon.  H.  L.  Langevin,  .        .        .   Secretary  of  State  of  Canada. 

lion.  A.  T.  Gait,    ....  Minister  of  Finance. 

Hon.  W.  Macdougall,   .         .         .  Minister  of  Public  Works. 

Hon.  Alexander  Campbell,  .        .  Postmaster-General. 

Hon.  J.  C.  Cliapais,       .        .        .  Minister  of  Agriculture. 

Hon.  E.  Kenny,     ....  Receiver-General. 

Hon.  Sir  George  E.  Cartier, .        .  Minister  of  Militia. 

Hon.  S.  L.  Tilley, ....  Minister  of  Customs. 

Hon.  "\V.  P.  Howland,   .        .        .  Minister  of  Inland  Revenue. 

Hon.  P.  Mitchell,  ....  Minister  of  Marino  and  Fisheries. 

Hon.  A.  G.  Archibald,  .        .        .  Secretary  of  State  for  the  Provinces. 

The  elections  for  the  Dominion  parliament  and  for  the  several 
local  legislatures  took  j^lace  during  the  summer.  The  Dominion 
parliament  met  at  Ottawa  for  the  transaction  of  business  on 
the  7th  of  Novcm])er.  It  was  soon  apparent  that  the  new  order 
of  things  was  not  regarded  by  all  the  provinces  Avith  unmixed 
satisfaction.  A  period  of  financial  depression  through  which 
the  country  was  passing,  the  severity  of  which  was  augmented 
by  the  suspension  of  the  Commercial  Bank,  one  of  the  oldest 
monetary  institutions  of  the  country,  became  the  occasion  of 
severe  adverse  criticism  of  the  fiscal  administration  of  the 
Government.  In  consequence  of  the  censure  thus  incurred, 
the  Hon.  A.  T.  Gait,  Finance  Minister,  resigned  his  office,  and 
the  Hon.  John  Rose  received  his  portfolio. 

On  the  7th  of  the  following  April,  the  country  was  thrilled 
with  horror  at  the  barbarous  assassination  of  the  Hon.  ises. 
Thomas  D'Arcy  McGee.  This  eloquent  statesman  had  been 
one  of  the  ablest  and  most  earnest  advocates  of  confederation, 
and  his  death  was  felt  as  a  national  bereavement.  He  was  fol- 
lowed from  the  House  of  Commons,  in  the  early  hours  of  the 
morning,  by  a  Fenian  fanatic  named  Patrick  Whelan,  and  shot 
while  entering  his  hotel.  The  sorrow  of  the  nation  was  mani- 
fested by  the  imposing  obsequies  of  the  murdered  statesman, 
and  by  its  generous  sympathy  toward  his  bereaved  family.  The 
wretch  who  had  stained  the  annals  of  his  country  with  the 
crime  of  assassination,  was  arrested,  tried  and  convicted, 
and  expiated  his  offence  on  the  gallows. 

In  the  month  of  November,  Lord  ISIonck,  having  witnessed 
the  successful  inauguration  of  the  new  constitution  of  the  con- 


526  BISTORT  OF  CANADA. 

federate  provinces,  was  succeeded  in  office  by  the  Eight  Hon. 

Sir  John  Young,  Baron  Lisgar,  P.  C,  G.  C.  B.,  G.  C.  M.  G. 

His  Excellency  was  bom  at  Bom- 
bay, in  1807.  He  was  educated 
at  Eton  and  Corpus  Christi  Col- 
lege, Oxford.  He  was  Chief 
Secretary  for  Ireland  from  1852 
to  1855,  and  subsequently  Lord 
High  Commissioner  for  the 
Ionian  Islands,  and  Governor  of 
New  South  Wales. 

Considerable        dissatisfaction 
with   the   terms    of  union   soon 

xoRD  LISGAR.  ^^o^^  ^^  ^^   manifested   in   the 

province  of  Nova  Scotia.  The 
annual  subsidy  from  the  Dominion  Government  of  $60,000, 
together  with  eighty  cents  per  head  for  the  population  according 
to  the  census  of  1861,  was  found  inadequate  for  the  civil 
expenses  of  the  Government.  A  strong  anti-confederation 
agitation  was  therefore  kept  up,  led  by  the  Hon.  Joseph  Howe, 
and  the  Hon.  Mr.  Wilkins,  Attorney-General  of  the  province. 
The  first  election  after  the  union  resulted  in  the  return  of  a  large 
majority  in  the  local  legislature  opposed  to  confederation.  A 
petition  was  forwarded  to  the  British  parliament,  requesting 
the  repeal  of  the  British  North  America  Act  so  far  as  it  con- 
cerned Nova  Scotia;  and,  during  the  year  1868,  Mr.  Howe 
proceeded  again  to  England,  to  urge  the  demands  of  his  native 
province.  He  was  confronted  by  his  countryman,  the  Hon. 
Dr.  Tupper,  the  agent  and  representative  of  the  Dominion 
Government.  The  Imperial  parliament  refused  to  entertain  the 
proposition  of  a  repeal  of  the  union,  but  counselled  a  com- 
promise with  the  recalcitrant  province. 

The  Dominion  Government  offered  a  liberal  re-adjustment  of 
terms  with  Nova  Scotia.  The  amount  of  provincial  debt 
1869.  assumed  by  the  Dominion  was  increased  from  $8,000,- 
000  to  $9,186,756,  and  an  additional  annual  subsidy  was 
granted.     The  cost  of  the  new  Provincial  Buildings  was  also 


CONFEDERATION  ACCOMPLISHED.  527 

assumed.  Mr.  Howe  withdrew  his  opposition,  and  accepted 
office  in  the  Dominion  Government  as  President  of  the  Execu- 
tive Council,  and  subsequently  as  Secretary  of  State  for  the  Prov- 
inces. This  act  was  bitterly  condemned  by  many  of  his  friends 
as  a  breach  of  trust,  and  he  gained  his  re-election  on  his  return 
to  his  constituents  only  after  a  severe  contest.  The  local 
opposition  to  the  union,  however,  gradually  subsided,  and  the 
generous  treatment  by  the  sister  provinces  of  the  distressed 
fishermen  of  Nova  Scotia,  whose  staple  industry  had  proved 
this  year  a  disastrous  failure,  also  tended  to  mitigate  the  anti- 
confederation  feeling.  The  Hon.  Edward  Kenny  succeeded 
Mr.  Howe  as  President  of  the  Council,  and  the  following  year 
was  appointed  administrator  of  the  Government  of  Nova 
Scotia.  In  consequence  of  resignations  and  deaths,  the  follow- 
ing additional  changes  were  made  in  the  ministry.  Sir  Francis 
Hincks  having  returned  to  Canada,  again  entered  public  life, 
and  became  Minister  of  Finance.  Senator  J.  C.  Aikins 
entered  the  cabinet,  at  first  without  a  portfolio,  then  as  Secre- 
tary of  State.  The  Hon.  Christopher  Dunkin,  and  Hon.  Alex. 
Morris,  became,  respectively,  ministers  of  Agriculture  and 
Inland  Ke venue. 


528  HISTORY  OF  C AX  AD  A. 


CHAPTER   XLVI. 

RIVAL    FUE    COMPANIES  — RED    RIVER    SETTLEMENT. 

The  Hudson's  Bay  Company  Organized,  1670  —  Prolonged  Conflict  -with  the 
older  French  Fur  Company  —  The  North-west  Company  Organized,  1783  — 
Its  Enterprise  and  Success  —  Fort  William  —  Lord  Selkirk  Plants  Red  River 
Colony,  1812  —  Conflict  with  North-west  Company  —  Murder  of  Governor 
Semple,  1816  —  Lord  Selkirk  Captures  Fort  William  —  Disasters  at  Red 
River  —  The  Caterpillar  Plague  —  Lord  Selkirk's  Energy  overcomes  every 
Difficulty  —  The  Great  Flood  of  1825-26  Devastates  the  Colony  —  Ill-advised 
Manufacturing  Schemes  —  Hudson's  Bay  and  North-west  Companies  Amal- 
gamate, 1821  —  Council  of  Assiniboia  Organized,  1836  —  Patriarchal  Gov- 
ernment of. the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  —  Development  of  the  North-west 
Territory. 

THE  extension  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada  so  as  to  embrace 
"within  its  bounds  the  whole  of  the  territory  of  British 
North  America,  was  the  strong  desire  of  the  leading  Canadian 
statesmen.  To  promote  this  object  the  Hon.  George  E.  Car- 
tier,  and  the  Hon.  William  Macdougall,  proceeded  to  England 
in  1868.  A  necessary  preliminary  to  this  was  the  cession  to 
Canada  of  the  rights  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company.  It  will 
be  convenient  here  to  retrace  briefly  the  history  of  the  great 
monopoly  that  for  two  centuries  had  controlled  those  vast,  and, 
in  large  part,  fertile  regions  of  this  continent. 

In  the  year  1670,  at  the  solicitation  of  Prince  Rupert*  and 
the  Duke  of  Albemarle,  King  Charles  II.  created  by  royal 
charter  the  "Company  of  Merchant  Adventurers  trading  to 
Hudson's  Bay."  With  characteristic  lavishness  the  King 
granted  to  this  company  the  sole  trade  and  commerce  of  the 
vast  and  vaguely  defined  regions,  to  which  access  may  be  had 
through  Hudson's  Straits.  Forty  years  before  this,  Louis 
XHI.  had  made  a  similar  grant  to  the  *'  Company  of  New 
France,"  and,  for  nearly  a  hundred  years,  there  was  a  keen  and 

*  Hence  a  large  portion  of  this  territory  was  known  as  Rupert's  Land. 


■RED  RIVER  SETTLEMENT.  529 

eager  rivalry  between  these  hostile  corporations.  In  order  to 
control  the  lucrative  fur-trade,  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company 
I^lantcd  forts  and  factories  at  the  mouths  of  the  Moose,  Albany, 
Nelson,  Churchill,  and  other  rivers  flowing  into  Hudson's  Bay. 
Again  and  again,  adventurous  bands  of  Frenchmen,  like 
D'Iberville  and  his  companions,  made  bloody  raids  upon  these 
posts,  murdering  their  occupants,  burning  the  stockades,  and 
carrying  off  the  rich  stores  of  peltries. 

Growing  bolder  with  success,  the  French  penetrated  the  vast 
interior  as  far  as  the  head-waters  of  the  Mississippi,  the  Mis- 
souri, and  the  Saskatchewan,  and  reached  the  Eocky  Mountains 
long  before  any  other  white  men  had  visited  those  regions. 
They  planted  trading-230sts  and  small  palisaded  forts  at  impor- 
tant river-junctions  and  on  far-off  lonely  lakes,  and  wrote  their 
names  all  over  this  great  continent,  in  the  designation  of  cape 
and  lake  and  stream,  and  other  great  features  of  nature.  The 
voyageurs  and  coureurs  de  bois,  to  whom  this  wild,  adventurous 
life  was  full  of  fascination,  roamed  through  the  forests  and 
navigated  the  countless  arrowy  streams;  and  Montreal  and 
Quebec  snatched  much  of  the  spoil  of  this  profitable  trade  from 
the  hands  of  the  English  company.  Every  little  far-off  trading- 
post  and  stockaded  fort  felt  the  reverberations  of  the  English 
guns  which  won  the  victory  of  the  Plains  of  Abraham,  whereby 
the  sovereignty  of  those  vast  regions  passed  away  forever  from 
the  possession  of  France. 

After  the  conquest,  numerous  independent  fur-traders  engaged 
in  this  profitable  traffic.  In  1783,  these  formed  a  junction  of 
interests  and  organized  the  North- west  Company.  For  forty 
years  this  was  one  of  the  strongest  combinations  in  Canada. 
Its  energetic  agents  explored  the  vast  North-west  regions.  Sir 
Alexander  Mackenzie,  in  1789,  traced  the  great  river  which 
bears  his  name,  and  first  reached  the  North  Pacific  across  the 
Eocky  Mountains.  In  1808,  Simon  Frazer  descended  the  gold- 
bearing  stream  which  perpetuates  his  memory ;  and,  shortly 
after,  Thompson  explored  and  named  another  branch  of  the 
same  gi-eat  river. 

Keen  was  the  rivalry  with  the  older  Hudson's  Bay  Company, 

67 


530  HISTORY   OF  CANADA. 

and  long  and  bitter  was  the  feud  between  the  two  great  cor- 
porations, each  of  which  coveted  a  broad  continent  as  a  hunt- 
ing-ground and  preserve  for  game.  The  headquarters  of  the 
North-west  Company  were  at  Fort  William,  on  Lake  Superior. 


McKAY'S  MOUNTAIN,   FORT  WILLIAM. 


Its  clerks  were  mostly  young  Scotchmen,  of  good  families, 
whose  characteristic  thrift  and  fidelity  were  encouraged  by  a 
share  in  the  profits  of  the  fur-trade.  The  partners  of  the  com- 
pany travelled  in  feudal  state,  attended  by  a  retinue  of  boatmen 
and  servants,  "obedient  as  Highland  clansmen."  The  grand 
councils  and  banquets  in  the  thick-walled  state  chamber  at 
Fort  William  were  occasions  of  lavish  pomp  and  luxury. 
Sometimes  as  many  as  twelve  hundred  retainers,  factors, 
clerks,  voyageurs,  and  trappers  were  assembled,  and  held  for 
a  time  high  festival,  with  a  strange  blending  of  civilized  and 
savage  life. 

In  the  early  years  of  the  present  century,  the  feud  between 
the  rival  companies  was  at  its  height.  At  this  time,  Thomas 
Douglas,  Earl  of  Selkirk,  was  the  Governor  of  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Company,  and  proprietor  of  a  large  proportion  of  the 
stock.  He  was  a  man  of  indomitable  energy,  and  of  dauntless 
courage.  With  the  skill  of  an  experienced  general,  he  pre- 
pared for  the  strenuous  conflict  which  he  felt  to  be  inevitable. 
He  perceived  that  by  obtaining  control  of  the  Red  River,  and 


RED  RIVER  SETTLEMENT.  531 

erecting  a  fort  at  its  junction  with  the  Assiniboine,  he  would 
have  a  strong  base  for  future  operations,  and  Avould  possess  an 
immense  advantage  over  his  opponents.  For  this  purpose  he 
resolved  to  establish  a  colony  of  his  countrymen  at  that  strate- 
gic position,  the  key  of  the  mid-continent.  He  received  from 
the  company,  in  furtherance  of  this  project,  a  grant  of  sixteen 
thousand  square  miles,  or  over  ten  million  acres  of  land,  in  the 
nei£]:hbourhood  of  Kcd  Kiver.  He  built  Fort  Douglas,  the  site 
of  which  is  commemorated  in  the  name  of  Point  Douglas,  in 
the  town  of  "Winnipeg.  The  oifer  of  free  grants  of  land,  and 
of  sundry  special  privileges,  induced  a  large  number  of  hardy 
Highlanders  to  seek  their  fortunes  in  the  fur  west. 

In  the  year  1812,  the  first  brigade  of  colonists  reached  Eed 
River,  by  way  of  Hudson's  Bay,  having  spent  an  entire  winter 
on  the  l)orders  of  that  icy  sea.  A  stern  welcome  awaited  them. 
Hardly  had  they  arrived  at  the  site  of  the  proposed  settlement, 
when  an  armed  band  of  Nor'- Westers,  the  rival  fur-traders, 
plumed  and  painted  in  the  Indian  style,  appeared  and  commanded 
the  colonists  to  depart.  The  latter,  overpowered  by  numbers, 
were  compelled  to  submit,  and  to  take  refuge  at  the  Hudson's 
Bay  post  at  Pembina,  within  the  territory  of  the  United  States. 
Even  the  guns  that  their  fathers  had  borne  at  Culloden,  were 
taken  from  them,  and  the  wedding-rings  of  the  women  were 
torn  from  their  fingers. 

Undaunted  by  this  failure,  they  returned  in  the  spring  of 
1813,  built  log-houses,  and  sowed  their  wheat.  They  were 
undisturbed  till  the  following  year.  By  this  time  the  decree 
had  gone  forth  from  the  councils  of  the  North-west  Company, 
—  the  colony  must  be  destroyed.  It  was  done,  but  not 
without  shedding  of  blood.  The  settlement  became  a  heap  of 
ashes,  its  inhabitants  exiles  in  the  wilderness. 

Ee-enforced  by  a  new  brigade  from  Scotland,  and  by  a  hun- 
dred veteran  Canadians,  the  banished  settlers  returned  to  their 
ruined  homes.  Many  hardships  ensued.  The  hapless  colonists 
lived  on  fish,  roots,  berries,  nettles,  and  wild  parsnips.  Many 
of  them  were  forced  to  abandon  the  settlement, — toiling 
through  the  wilderness  back  to  Canada. 


532  mSTORT  OF  CANADA. 

But  iu  the  following  year,  1816,  there  fell  upon  the  little 
colony  a  more  crushing  blow  than  any  it  had  yet  received.  In 
the  month  of  June,  a  body  of  three  hundred  mounted  Nor'- 
"Westers,  armed  to  the  teeth,  and  begrimed  with  war-paint, 
attacked  the  settlement.  A  little  band  of  twenty-eight  men 
went  forth  to  parley.  By  a  volley  of  the  enemy,  twenty-one 
of  them  were  slain,  including  Mr,  Robert  Semple,  acting-Gov- 
ernor of  the  settlement.  The  town  was  sacked  and  burned, 
and  the  wretched  inhabitants,  driven  from  the  blackened  embers 
of  their  devastated  homes,  found  refuge  at  Xorway  House.  * 

Lord  Selkirk  was  at  New  York,  on  his  way  to  Rupert's  Land, 
when  he  heard  of  this  attack.  He  immediately  assumed  the 
offensive.  The  blood  of  the  Douglases  was  stirred  in  his  veins. 
He  had  with  him  about  a  hundred  Swiss,  German,  and  French 
soldiers  of  the  De  Meuron  regiment,  disbanded  at  the  close  of 
the  continental  war,  and  a  few  Glengarry  men.  With  these  he 
hastened  by  way  of  Penetanguishene,  and  the  north  shore  of 
Lakes  Huron  and  Superior  to  Fort  William,  dragging  with  him 
two  small  cannon  through  the  wilderness.  Here  sworn  infor- 
mation w^as  laid  before  him  as  a  Justice  of  the  Peace  by  some 
of  the  sufferers  from  the  recent  outrages,  charging  certain 
occupants  of  the  fort  with  the  crime  of  "larceny,  riot,  and 
murder."  There  were  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Fort  William 
about  three  hundred  French-Canadians  and  Indians  in  the  em- 
ploy of  the  North-west  Company.  Selkirk  demanded  the  sur- 
render of  the  guilty  parties,  and,  under  warrant  of  his  justice's 
commission,  broke  open  the  gates  and  took  possession  of  the 
fort.  The  prisoners  were  sent  to  York  (Toronto)  for  trial ; 
but,  through  incompleteness  of  evidence,  were  acquitted,  and, 
for  some  time,  Selkirk  held  possession  of  the  fort. 

With  a  high-spirited  philanthropy,  Lord  Selkirk  sought  to 
give  homes  on  the  fertile  jirairies  of  Red  River  to  his  country- 
men who  had  faithfully  served  their  King  through  a  bloody 
European  w^ar,  or  who  were  driven  from  their  ancestral  hold- 
ings of  land  by  heartless   landlords,  who,  preferring  sheep- 

*  It  was  afterward  noted  that  twenty-six  out  of  tlie  attacking  party  of  sixty- 
five,  died  untimely  and  violent  deatlis. 


RED  RIVER  SETTLEMENT.  533 

farming  to  tenant-culture,  turned  populous  estates  into  a  soli- 
tude. He  again  established  colonists  in  the  thrice-forsaken 
settlement,  furnishing  them  with  agricultural  implements,  seed- 
grain  and  stock.  But  the  summer  was  already  half  gone,  the 
harvest  was  scanty,  famine  was  impending,  and  the  hapless 
settlers  were  again  compelled,  on  the  approach  of  winter,  to 
take  refuge  at  the  Hudson's  Bay  post  at  Pembina.  Their  hard- 
ships were  incredible.  They  were  forced  to  subsist  upon  the 
precarious  products  of  the  chase.  They  suffered  everything 
but  death,  and  were  reduced  to  the  utmost  extremity. 

In  the  spring,  the  Red  River  colonists  returned  for  the  fifth 
time  to  their  abandoned  habitations.  Fortune  seemed  at  last 
to  smile  upon  their  efforts.  The  crops  were  ripening  around 
the  little  settlement  and  hope  beat  high  in  every  heart ;  but  an 
unforeseen  catastrophe  aAvaited  them.  Late  in  an  afternoon  in 
the  last  week  in  July,  a  cloud  of  grasshoppers, — like  the 
Egyptian  plague  of  locusts,  more  terrible  than  a  destroying 
army,  — darkened  the  air,  covered  the  ground,  and,  in  a  single 
night,  devoured  almost  every  green  thing.  The  land  was  as 
the  garden  of  Eden  before  them,  and  behind  them  a  desolate 
wilderness.  It  was  a  piteous  sight.  Strong  men  bowed  them- 
selves. The  sturdy  Highlanders,  who  had  gazed  on  death 
unblanched,  burst  into  tears  as  they  thought  of  the  famine- 
pangs  that  menaced  their  wives  and  little  ones.  Another  weary 
march,  and  a  miserable  winter  at  Pembina,  was  their  fate. 

Again,  in  the  spring,  that  forlorn  hope  returned  to  their 
devastated  fields.  But  agriculture  was  impossible.  The  grass- 
hoppers of  the  previous  season  had  left  a  terrible  legacy  behind 
them.  Their  larvee  multiplied  a  thousand-fold.  They  filled 
the  air,  covered  the  ground,  extinguished  the  fires  kindled  in 
the  fields  as  a  barrier  against  them,  polluted  the  water,  were 
strewn  along  the  river  banks  like  seaweed  on  the  ocean  shore, 
and  the  stench  of  their  dead  bodies  infected  the  atmosphere. 
Pembina  must  succour  the  hapless  colonists  yet  another  winter. 

The  story  of  such  uniform  disaster  becomes  wearisome. 
Any  one  less  determined,  less  dogged,  it  might  perhaps  be  said, 
than  Lord  Selkirk,  would  have  abandoned  the  colony.     Not  so 


534  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

he.  His  resolution  rose  with  the  difficulties  of  the  occasion, 
and  surmounted  every  obstacle.  That  little  company, — the 
advance-guard  of  the  great  army  of  civilization  destined  yet  to 
fill  the  land  so  bravely  won,  —  returned  to  the  scene  of  their 
blasted  hopes.  At  the  cost  of  five  thousand  dollars,  Lord 
Selkirk  brought  two  hundred  and  fifty  bushels  of  seed-wheat 
from  Prairie  du  Chien,  on  the  Mississippi,  a  distance  of  twelve 
hundred  miles.  It  was  soTvai,  and,  by  the  Divine  blessing, 
after  eight  years  of  failure,  the  harvest  was  happily  reaped. 
Amid  such  hardships  and  jDrivations  was  the  Ked  River  settle- 
ment planted. 

The  colony  now  struck  its  roots  deep  into  the  soil.  It  grew 
and  flourished  year  by  year.  Recruits  came  from  Scotland, 
from  Germany,  from  Switzerland.  They  suffered  many  priva- 
tions, and  encountered  some  disasters,  but  none  worse  than  that 
of  the  winter  of  1825-26.  It  was  a  season  of  extreme  severity. 
Thirty-three  f)ersons  perished  of  hunger  and  cold,  and  many 
cattle  died.  With  the  spring  thaw,  the  river  rose  nine  feet  in 
a  single  day.  In  three  days  every  house  had  to  be  abandoned. 
The  inhabitants  fled  to  the  highest  ground  adjacent.  They 
beheld  their  houses,  barns,  crops,  fences,  —  everything  they 
jDossessed,  —  swept  by  on  the  rushing  torrent  to  Lake  Winnipeg. 
The  waters  continued  to  rise  for  nineteen  days.  The  disheart- 
ened colonists  proposed  a])andoning  forever  the  luckless  settle- 
ment. At  this  crisis  tidings  of  the  abatement  of  the  flood  was 
brought.  The  weary  w^atchers  rushed  to  the  water's  side.  It 
was  even  so.  They  accepted  the  deliverance  as  from  God. 
They  resolved  to  remain  where  they  were.  A  new  beginning 
had  to  be  made.  The  unfortunate  settlement  was  well-nigh 
destroyed. 

In  a  somewhat  visionary  attempt  to  manufacture  cloth  from 
buffaloes'  wool,  the  magnates  of  the  fur-trade,  at  great  cost, 
introduced  machinery  and  workmen  from  England.  This  fail- 
ing, fifteen  thousand  sheep  were  purchased  in  Kentucky,  two 
thousand  miles  distant.  Only  two  hundred  and  fifty  survived 
the  journey,  and  those  soon  died  of  exhaustion.  Flax-culture 
and  tallow  exportation  were  also  tried  without  success.     In 


RED  RIVER  SETTLEMENT.  535 

these  ill-advised  schemes  Lord  Selkirk  sank  half  a  million  of 
dollars.  The  population  of  the  settlement,  however,  continued 
gradually  to  increase,  a  considerable  proportion  of  it  ])eing 
composed  of  the  half-breed  progeny  of  the  early  French  or 
English-speaking  employes  of  the  trading  companies  and  the 
aboriginal  race. 

Exhausted  by  forty  years  of  conflict,  in  1821,  the  Hudson's 
Bay  and  North-west  companies  ceased  their  warfare  and  com- 
bined their  forces,  and  were  confirmed  by  the  Imperial  parlia- 
ment in  the  monopoly  of  trade  through  the  wide  region  stretch- 
ing from  Labrador  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  In  order  to  maintain 
control  of  the  Ked  Eiver  settlement,  in  1836,  they  paid  the 
sum  of  £84,000  sterling  for  the  land  granted  to  Lord  Selkirk 
twenty-four  years  before,  except  that  which  had  been  deeded  to 
settlers.  Sir  George  Simpson  became  the  Governor  of  the 
Territory,  and  continued  to  administer  its  afiairs  for  forty 
years.  The  Council  of  Assiniboia  was  organized,  consisting  of 
the  chief  officer  of  the  company,  and  councillors  chosen  from 
among  the  most  influential  inhabitants  of  the  region,  and  having 
jurisdiction  for  fifty  miles  around  Fort  Garry.  The  rest  of  the 
Territory  was  under  the  supreme  control  of  the  company.  Its 
government,  while  jealously  exclusive  of  rival  influence,  was 
patriarchal  in  character,  and  through  the  exclusion,  for  the 
most  part,  of  intoxicating  liquors,  greatly  promoted  the  welfare 
of  the  Indians,  and  repressed  disorder  throughout  its  wide 
domain. 

The  policy  of  the  company  was  adverse  to  the  settlement  of 
the  country,  and  its  agents  endeavoured,  as  far  as  possible, 
to  retain  the  fur-trade  and  sale  of  goods  and  supplies, — the 
profits  of  which  were  very  gi-eat,  —  exclusively  in  their  own 
hands. 

The  Red  Eiver  settlement,  in  1858,  had  increased  to  a  popu- 
lation of  about  eight  thousand,  and  during  the  next  ten  years 
to  about  twelve  thousand.  On  the  formation  of  the  Dominion 
of  Canada,  however,  it  was  felt  to  be  highly  desirable  that  it 
should  be  included  in  the  new  confederacy,  and  also  that  the 
Dominion  should  acquire  jurisdiction  over  the    vast  regions 


536  BISTORT  OF  CANADA. 

under  the  control  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company ;  and,  as  we 
have  seen,  the  Hon.  George  E.  Cartier  and  Hon.  William 
Macdougall  visited  Great  Britain  to  promote  this  object. 
Some  years  prior  to  this  date,  numerously-signed  petitions 
from  the  inhabitants  of  the  Eed  River  settlement  were  pre- 
sented to  the  Government  of  Canada,  soliciting  annexation  to 
that  country. 


THE  RED  RIVER  REBELLION .  537 


CHAPTER    XLVII. 

THE    EED    RIVER    REBELLION. 

Nortli--we8t  Territory  ceded  to  the  Crown,  1868  —  The  Hon.  'William  Mac- 
douguU  at  Red  River,  October  20,  18G9  —  Insurrectionary  Outbreak  —  The 
Insurgents  Seize  Fort  Garry,  November  3  -r-  Dr.  Schultz,  and  Forty-four 
Canadians,  Captured  and  Imprisoned,  December  7  —  Provisional  Government 
Organized,  February  9,  1870  —  Major  Boulton  and  Forty-seven  Loyalists 
Captured  aud  Imprisoned,  February  17  —  Thomas  Scott  Condemned  and 
Shot,  March  4  —  Indignation  in  Canada  —  The  Manitoba  Act  Passed, 
May  20  —  Colonel  Wolseley  Organizes  Red  River  Expedition  —  It  Enters 
Fort  Garry,  August  24  —  Hon.  A.  G.  Archibald  Assumes  Civil  Government, 
September  3  —  Last  Fenian  Attempt  at  Trout  River  and  Pigeon  Hill,  May 
25-23  —  British  Columbia  Enters  the  Dominion,  1871  —  Vancouver's  Island 
Discovered,  1762  —  Colonized  by  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  1843  —  Vancouver's 
Island  a  Crown  Colony,  1849  —  Influx  of  Gold-hunters,  1858  —  British 
Columbia  Organized  a  Separate  Colony  —  Joint  Occupation  of  San  Juan  by 
British  and  Americans,  1854  —  Vancouver's  Island  and  British  Columbia  Re- 
nnited,  1866  —  Terms  of  Union  with  Canada  —  Franco-Prussian  War  — 
Outrages  of  the  Commune. 

THE  extension  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada  till  it  should 
embrace  the  whole  of  the  British  North  American  posses- 
sions from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  was  destined  soon  to  be 
accomplished.  In  1868,  the  Rupert's  Land  Act  was  passed  by 
the  British  parliament,  aud,  under  its  provisions,  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Company  surrendered  to  the  crown  its  territorial  rights 
over  the  vast  region  under  its  control.  The  conditions  of  this 
surrender  were  as  follows  :  —  The  company  was  to  receive  the 
sum  of  £300,000  sterling  in  money,  and  grants  of  land  around 
its  trading-posts  to  the  extent  of  fifty  thousand  acres  in  all. 
In  addition  it  is  to  receive,  as  it  is  surveyed  and  laid  out  in 
townships,  one-twentieth  of  all  the  land  in  the  great  fertile  belt 
south  of  the  north  branch  of  the  Saskatchewan.  It  retains 
also  the  privilege  of  trade,  but  without  its  former  exclusive 
monopoly.  * 

*  The  price  paid  for  this  magnificent  territory  amounts  to  only  one-sixth  of 
a  cent  i)er  acre,  or  one-fifteenth  the  amount  paid  per  acre  by  the  United  States 
for  frozen  Alaska. 

68 


538  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

The  following  April  the  Dominion  parliament  passed  an  Act, 
i869.»  granting  the  necessary  appropriation  for  the  indemnity 
of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  for  its  territorial  rights,  and 
providing  for  the  temporary  government  of  the  entire  region, 
under  the  designation  of  the  North-west  Territory.  In  antici- 
pation of  its  speedy  cession,  which  was  appointed  to  take  place 
on  the  1st  of  December,  surveying  parties  were  sent  into  the 
Red  River  country  for  the  purpose  of  laying  out  roads  and 
townships,  with  a  view  to  its  early  occupation.  Unhappily 
jealousies  were  awakened  among  the  settlers  lest  this  move- 
ment should  in  some  way  prejudice  their  title  to  their  land.  It 
was  unfortunate  that  no  commissioner  was  appointed  at  this 
juncture  to  explain  the  proposed  change  of  government,  in 
order  to  remove  the  misapprehensions  of  the  inhabitants. 

In  the  month  of  September,  the  Hon.  William  Macdougall 
proceeded  to  Red  River  to  assume  the  duties  of  Governor  of 
the  North-west  Territory  so  soon  as  the  cession  should  take 
place.  He  was  prepared  to  establish  stage  and  telegraph  lines, 
and  to  carry  out  a  vigorous  policy  of  internal  development  and 
improvement.  He  w^as  met  near  the  frontier,  on  the  20th  of 
October,  by  a  band  of  armed  men,  and  compelled  to  retreat 
across  the  border  to  Pembina.  An  insurrectionary  council  was 
created,  with  John  Bruce  as  its  president,  and  Louis  Riel  as 
secretary,  although  the  latter  was  really  the  leading  spirit  of 
the  movement.  The  insurgents  set  at  defiance  the  authority  of 
Mr.  MacTavish,  the  resident  Governor  of  Assiniboia  and  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Territory,  and,  on  the  3d  of  November,  took 
forcible  possession  of  Fort  Garry,  a  stone-walled  enclosure 
containing  the  valuable  stores  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company, 
together  with  a  quantity  of  small-arms,  several  pieces  of 
cannon,  and  a  large  supply  of  ammunition. 

Colonel  Dennis,  a  Canadian  militia  officer,  who  had  been 
conducting  the  land  surveys,  and  was  commissioned  as  Deputy- 

*  During  this  summer,  H.  E.  H.  Prince  Arthur  joined  his  regiment  in  Canada. 
He  made  a  somewhat  extended  tour  through  the  country,  and  was  CTerywhere 
received  with  the  loyal  enthusiasm  by  which  Canadians  testify  their  regard 
for  the  family  of  their  beloved  sovereign. 


THE  RED  RIVER  REBELLIOX.  539 

Governor  hy  Mr.  Macdougall,  hereupon  organized  a  force  of 
the  loyal  inhabitants,  for  the  suppression  of  the  revolt  and  the 
vindication  of  the  Queen's  authority.  A  party  of  these,  forty- 
five  in  all,  were  besieged  by  the  insurgents  in  the  house  of  Dr. 
Schultz,  in  the  town  of  Winnipeg,  and,  on  their  surrender  on 
the  7th  of  December,  were  imprisoned  for  some  months  in  Fort 
Garr}'.  The  number  of  prisoners  was  soon  increased  by  illegal 
arrests  to  over  sixty. 

The  temporary  success  of  the  revolt  seems  to  have  com- 
pletely turned  the  heads  of  its  leaders,  and  to  have  isro. 
encouraged  them  to  more  audacious  designs.  Kiel  demanded 
a  loan  of  two  thousand  pounds  sterling  from  Governor  Mac- 
Tavish,  which,  being  refused,  he  seized  and  broke  open  the 
safe  of  the  company  and  pillaged  its  stores,  as  well  as  the 
property  of  Dr.  Schultz,  and  that  of  the  Canadian  Govern- 
ment, deposited  in  his  warehouse.  He  proceeded  further  to 
the  arrest  of  Governor  MacTavish,  then  ill  with  his  mortal 
sickness. 

A  convention  of  delegates  from  the  several  parishes  of  the 
settlement  was  now  summoned  by  the  Kiel  faction,  and  a 
declaration  was  issued  in  vindication  of  their  insurrectionary 
movement.  A  provisional  government  was  created,  of  which 
Riel  contrived  to  have  himself  elected  president,  February  7. 
A  bill  of  rights  was  formulated,  the  principal  feature  of  which 
was  a  demand  for  local  self-government,  representation  in  the 
Dominion  legislature,  and  an  amnesty  to  be  granted  to  the 
leaders  of  the  revolt.  Eiel  had  now  an  armed  force  of  some 
six  hundred  men  under  his  control,  and  carried  things  with  a 
high  hand  in  the  settlement,  arresting  whomsoever  he  chose, 
confiscating  public  and  private  property,  and  banishing  from 
the  country  jDcrsons  obnoxious  to  himself. 

This  usurped  authority  proving  intolerable  to  the  loyal  in- 
habitants, they  organized  a  movement  for  the  release  of  the 
prisoners  and  the  suppression  of  the  revolt.  A  large  body  of 
men,  numbering,  it  is  said,  some  six  or  seven  hundred,  assem- 
bled for  this  purpose  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Fort  Garry. 
The  prisoners  in  the  fort  having  in  the  meantime  been  released, 


540  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

this  movement  was  abandoned.  A  party  of  these  loyalists,  on 
their  way  to  their  homes,  were  intercepted  by  an  armed  force 
from  the  fort,  and  imprisoned,  to  the  number  of  forty-eight. 
Their  leader.  Major  Boulton,  a  Canadian  militia  oflScer,  was 
thrown  into  irons,  and,  after  a  summary  trial  by  a  rebel 
tribunal,  was  sentenced  to  be  shot.  He  was  reprieved  only 
after  the  earnest  intercession  of  the  leading  persons  of  the 
English-speaking  population. 

Shortly  after,  however,  another  Canadian  prisoner  fell  a 
victim  to  Kiel's  usurped  and  ill-used  power.  Thomas  Scott,  a 
brave  and  loyal  man,  for  the  crime  of  endeavouring  to  main- 
tain the  authority  of  his  rightful  sovereign,  after  a  mock-trial 
by  a  rebel  court-martial,  was  sentenced  to  be  shot  at  noon  the 
following  day.  In  spite  of  the  remonstrance  and  intercession 
of  the  Rev.  George  Young,  the  Wesleyan  missionary,  at  Win- 
nipeg, who  attended  the  prisoner  in  his  last  hours,  and  of  Mr. 
Commissioner  Smith,  the  cruel  sentence  of  this  illegal  and  self- 
constituted  tribunal  was  carried  into  execution. 

On  the  4th  of  ]\Iarch,  Thomas  Scott  was  led  from  his  prison 
with  pinioned  arms,  and  shot  in  cold  blood  by  a  firing  party  of 
the  insurgents.  So  unskilfully  did  the  assassins  perform  their 
work,  that  it  is  said  the  unfortunate  man  lived  and  spoke  for 
some  time  after  he  was  thrust  into  his  coffin,  and  was  at  last 
despatched  with  the  stab  of  a  knife. 

The  tidings  of  this  assassination  produced  intense  excitement 
throughout  Canada,  especially  in  the  province  of  Ontario. 
Tumultuous  indignation  meetings  were  held,  and  a  loud 
demand  was  made  for  the  punishment  of  the  instigators  of  the 
crime.  A  reward  of  five  thousand  dollars  was  subsequently 
ofiered  by  the  Ontario  Government  for  the  arrest  of  Kiel. 
Measures  were  promptly  taken  by  the  Imperial  and  Dominion 
authorities  conjointly,  for  maintaining  the  supremacy  of  the 
Queen  in  the  North-west.  Several  commissioners*  had,  dur- 
ing the  winter,  been  appointed  by  the  Dominion  Government 
to  visit  the  insurgent  territory,  to  ascertain  the  wishes  of  the 

*  Grand  Vicar  Thibault,  Colonel  de  Salaberry,  Donald  A.  Smith  (who  was  a 
member  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company),  and  Bishop  Tach6. 


THE  RED  RIVER  REBELLION. 


541 


inhabitants,    and   to    convey   assurances   that   all  their   rights 
should  he  respected,  and  a  liberal  constitution  granted. 

On  the  20th  of  May,  an  Act  passed  the  Dominion  parliament, 
creating  the  new  province  of  Manitoba,  and  admitting  it  into 
the  Canadian  confederation.  Its  limits  were  defined  as  extend- 
ing a  hundred  miles  northward  from  the  American  frontier, 
and  one  hundred  and  twenty  miles  from  east  to  west.  It  was 
granted  a  representation  of  two  members  in  the  Senate,  and 
four  in  the  House  of  Commons.  It  was  also  to  receive  an 
annual  subsidy  of  $30,000,  and  eighty  cents  per  head  on  a 
population  estimated  at  seventeen  thousand.  A  local  legisla- 
ture was  organized,  consisting  of  a  Lieutenant-Governor 
(assisted  by  an  Executive  Council  of  five  members),  a  Legis- 
lative Council  of  seven  members,  and  a  House  of  Assembly  of 
twenty-four  members. 

The  govern- 
ment of  the  con- 
tiguous North- 
west Territory  was 
to  be  administered 
by  the  Lieutenant- 
Governor  of  Mani- 
toba, aided  by  a 
Council  of  eleven 
members  (after- 
wards increased  to 
twenty-two).  This 
Act  was  accepted 
by  the  council  of 
the  provisional 
government  on 
behalf  of  the  peo- 
ple, and,  on  the 
23d  of  June     the  kakabekah  falls,  kaministiquia  kiver. 

Queen's  proclamation  for  the  admission  of  the  new  province  into 
the  Dominion  was  issued. 

In  the  meantime.  Colonel  Garnet  Wolseley,  afterwards  dis- 


542  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

tinguished  as  the  successful  commander  of  the  British  troops 
in  the  Ashantee  war,  organized,  in  the  month  of  June,  a  mili- 
tary expedition  to  restore  the  authority  of  the  Queen  m  the 
insurrectionary  province.  A  body  of  twelve  hundred  picked 
men,  about  a  hundred  of  whom  belonged  to  the  Sixtieth  Regi- 
ment of  the  regular  army,  the  remainder  being  volunteer  Cana- 
dian militia  from  both  Ontario  and  Quebec,  proceeded  by  way 
of  Fort  William  and  Rainy  Lake  and  Eiver  to  Fort  Garry. 
For  four  hundred  miles  the  expedition  traversed  a  wilderness 
of  labyrinthine  lakes  or  rapid  rivers.  All  the  military  stores 
and  provisions,  and  the  large  and  heavy  boats,  had  to  be  borne 
with  incredible  labour  over  numerous  portages,  —  often  long 
and  steep  and  rugged,  —  around  the  Jfiills  and  cataracts,  one  of 
which  is  shown  in  the  engraving.  Yet  the  little  army  toiled 
on  through  innumerable  obstacles,  and,  on  the  24th  of  August, 
reached  its  destination,  only  to  find  that,  as  no  amnesty  for  the 
leaders  of  the  revolt  had  arrived,  Kiel,  and  his  fellow-conspira- 
tors had  fled  from  Fort  Garry. 

The  British  troops  immediately 
occupied  the  fort,  and,  to  the  great 
joy  of  the  loyal  inhabitants,  the 
Queen's  authority  was  again  acknowl- 
edged as  supreme.  On  the  3d  of 
September,  the  Hon.  A.  G.  Archibald 
arrived,  and  assumed  the  functions  of 
Lieutenant-Governor.  *  The  troops 
of  the  regular  army  immediately 
returned,  and  the  maintenance  of 
order  was  entrusted  to  the  Canadian 
„^„  .  ^     militia ;     most    of    whom,    however, 

HON.  A.  G.  ARCHIBALD.  '  '  ' 

were  shortly  after  withdrawn. 

*  The  Hon.  Adams  George  Archibald,  was  born  at  Truro,  Nova  Scotia,  in  1814. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Executive  Council  of  his  native  province,  during  a 
period  of  four  years.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Union  Conferences  at  Char- 
lottetown,  Quebec,  and  London.  He  was  Secretary  of  State  for  the  provinces 
in  the  first  ministry  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  In  1873,  he  resigned  the 
Governorship  of  Manitoba  and  the  North-west  Territory,  and,  the  same  year, 
was  appointed  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Nova  Scotia,  on  the  death  of  the  Hon. 
Joseph  Howe. 


THE  RED  RIVER  REBELLION.  543 

The  leaders  of  the  Fenian  conspiracy  in  the  United  States 
had,  in  the  meantime,  been  endeavonring  to  keep  up  the  delu- 
sion of  their  countrymen  that  a  serious  attack  would  be  made 
on  Canada.  At  length  they  found  that  some  active  demonstra- 
tion was  necessary  to  prevent  the  collapse  of  the  organization. 
In  the  spring  of  the  year,  therefore,  it  made  its  last  feeble 
effort  to  disturb  the  peace  of  Canada.  Ou  the  25th  of  May, 
an  ill- organized  horde  crossed  the  frontier  of  the  province  of 
Quebec,  at  Trout  River.  It  was  speedily  confronted  by  a 
small  force  of  regulars  and  volunteers,  and  hastily  retreated. 
Three  days  later  a  similar  raid  was  made  at  Pigeon  Hill,  but  it 
was  repulsed,  and  "General"  O'Neil  was  captured  by  the 
United  States  Marshal.  The  President  of  the  United  States 
hereupon  issued  a  proclamation  forbidding  American  citizens 
taking  any  part  in  raids  against  the  people  of  Canada. 

On  the  5th  of  October,  of  the  following  year,  the  irrepres- 
sible O'Neil,  and  O'Donohue,  a  confederate  of  Kiel's  in  isti. 
the  late  insurrection,  with  a  Fenian  band,  crossed  the  boundary 
of  Manitoba,  at  Pembina,  and  seized  the  Custom-house  and 
Hudson's  Bay  post.  They  were,  shortly  after,  followed  and 
caiDtured  by  a  company  of  United  States  troops,  the  precise 
location  of  the  boundary  line  being  not  then  settled,  and  O'Neil 
and  some  of  his  fellow-conspirators  underwent  the  formality  of 
a  trial  in  a  United  States  court,  but  were  discharged.  Mr. 
Archibald  was,  shortly  after,  succeeded  as  Lieutenant-Gov- 
ernor by  the  Hon.  Chief  Justice  Morris. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  year,  the  Pacific  province  of  British 
Columbia  was  admitted  into  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  The 
previous  history  of  that  colony  is  soon  told.  In  1762,  Captain 
Vancouver  visited  and  partially  explored  the  islands  lying  off 
the  North  Pacific  coast,  and  gave  his  name  to  the  largest  of  the 
group.  Attracted  by  the  spacious  harbours,  fine  climate,  fer- 
tile soil,  and  wealth  of  timber,  coal,  fisheries,  and  furs,  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Company,  in  1843,  received  a  lease  of  the  island 
and  the  adjacent  main-land  from  the  crown,  and  planted  trad- 
ing-posts at  Victoria  and  other  places.  International  difiicul- 
ties  on  account  of  disputed  boundary,  shortly  arising,  in  1846 


544  BISTORT  OF  CAXADA. 

the  dividing  line  between  the  British  territory  and  United 
States  was  defined  as  one  passing  through  the  channel  that 
separates  Vancouver's  Island  from  the  main-land.  This  was  still 
ambiguous,  as  each  country  claimed  the  island  of  San  Juan, 
situated  in  mid-channel,  and  of  considerable  importance  for 
military  purposes  as  commanding  the  entrance  to  Frazer 
Eiver. 

In  1849,  Vancouver's  Island  became  a  crown  colony,  and  Sir 
James  Douglas,  the  local  agent  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company, 
was  appointed  its  first  Governor.  The  contemporaneous  dis- 
covery of  gold  in  California  attracted  thither  thousands  of 
Canadian  and  American  gold-hunters,  and  the  more  northern 
colony  was  neglected.  Rich  deposits  of  the  precious  metal 
were  shortly  after  found  in  British  Columbia.  Wild  miners 
from  California,  and  adventurous  spirits  from  all  parts  of  the 
world  flocked  to  the  new  El  Dorado.  In  1858,  between  twenty 
and  thirty  thousand  men  were  digging  on  the  terraced  slopes 
of  the  Frazer,  and  its  tributaries.  As  a  firm  local  government 
was  necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  order  among  the  mixed, 
and,  often  reckless  population,  British  Columbia  was  organized 
a  separate  crown  colony. 

The  following  year,  1859,  the  American  military  command- 
ant in  Oregon  Territory,  occupied,  with  an  armed  force,  the 
island  of  San  Juan,  the  possession  of  which  was  a  matter  of 
dispute  between  the  two  nations.  The  English  Admiral 
promptly  landed  a  body  of  marines  in  vindication  of  the  claim 
of  Great  Britain.  A  collision  between  the  two  forces  seemed 
imminent,  but  the  rival  claimants  agreed  to  a  joint  occupation 
of  the  island  till  the  question  of  its  rightful  ownership  should 
be  settled  by  arbitration. 

In  18G6,  Vancouver's  Island  was  re-united  with  British 
Columbia,  and,  on  the  20th  of  July,  1871,  that  colony  was 
incorporated  with  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  It  was  granted  a 
representation  in  the  Dominion  Senate  of  three  members,  and 
six  members  in  the  House  of  Commons.  The  chief  condition 
of  the  union  was  the  construction,  withir^  ten  years,  of  a  rail- 
way connecting  the  tide-waters  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  with  the 


THE  RED  RIVER  REBELLION.  545 

railway  system  of  Outario  and  Quebec,  —  a  gigantic  under- 
taking, afterwards  found  impracticable  within  the  allotted  time. 
To  aid  the  construction  of  the  road  the  province  was  to  grant 
twenty  miles  of  land  on  each  side  of  the  line  throughout  its 
entire  territory,  for  which  it  was  to  receive  from  the  central 
government  the  sum  of  $100,000  per  year.  The  debt  of  the 
Pacific  province  was  also  assumed  by  the  Dominion  at  the  com- 
puted amount  of  $1,666,000.  It  received  a  subsidy  of  eighty 
cents  a  head  on  an  estimated  population  of  sixty  thousand,  of 
which  three-fourths  consisted  of  the  native  Indian  tribes.  It 
was  also  to  receive  an  annual  grant  of  $35,000. 

Contemporaneously  with  this  national  growth  and  develop- 
ment, stirring  events  were  shaking  the  European  continent,  to 
which  we  could  not  in  Canada  be  indifferent.  The  declaration 
of  war  against  Germany  by  the  Emperor  of  the  French,  in 
1870,  was  speedily  followed  by  the  invasion  of  France,  and 
the  successive  defeat  of  the  French  armies  in  the  sanguinary 
conflicts  of  Woerth,  Gravelotte,  and  Sedan.  The  Emperor  a 
prisoner,  the  Empress  fled  to  England  and  France  was  de- 
clared a  republic.  The  victorious  German  armies  pressed 
remorselessly  on  to  the  siege  of  Paris.  Amid  frost  and  famine 
and  fire,  amid  desperate  sorties  and  gallant  resistance,  the 
doomed  city  held  out  till  January  23,  1871,  when  it  succumbed 
to  the  awful  bombardment  and  relentless  siege  of  the  enemy. 
On  the  1st  of  March,  the  conquering  army  marched  into  the 
captured  capital,  and  inflicted,  as  the  price  of  their  evacua- 
tion of  France,  the  penalty  of  the  excessive  indemnity  of 
5,000,000,000  francs. 

No  sooner  was  the  strong  hand  of  the  Germans  removed 
than  the  terrible  rising  of  the  Commune  took  place.  For  three 
months  the  Kepublican  army  of  France  besieged  its  own  capi- 
tal, and,  in  fratricidal  conflict,  fought  its  way  through  scenes 
of  slaughter,  blood,  and  flame,  to  the  possession  of  the  city. 
A  dreadful  retaliation  followed  the  stubborn  resistance  and 
wanton  destruction  of  property  by  the  frenzied  Commune,  in 
the  wholesale  execution  of  the  defeated  faction  by  their  vie- 


546  EISTORT  OF  CANADA. 

torious  fellow-countrymen.  These  tragical  events  were  the 
cause  of  profound  sympathy  in  Canada,  and  considerable  sums 
of  money  were  contributed  by  its  French  and  German  inhabi- 
tants for  the  relief  of  the  wounded  of  their  respective  coun- 
tries. 


CLOSE   OF  THE  MAC  DONALD  ADMIS  1ST  RATION.  54; 


CHAPTER   XLVm. 

CLOSE  OF  THE  MACDONALD  ADMINISTRATION. 

The  Alabama  Claims  —  The  Fishery  Question  —  The  Washington  Treaty  Con- 
cluded, May  8,  1871  —  Hon.  Edward  Blake,  Premier  of  Ontario  —  Lord  Duf- 
ferin,  Governor-General,  1872  —  The  Geneva  Arbitration  —  British  Sentiment 
on  Colonial  Connection  —  Second  Dominion  Parliament  —  Census  Returns — 
Canadian  Pacific  Railway  —  Mr.  Huntington  Charges  the  Government  with 
Malfeasance)  April  2,  1873  —  Investigation  Committee  Appointed  —  The 
Oaths  Bill  Passed  —  Death  of  Sir  George  E.  Cartier  and  Hon.  Joseph  Howe  — 
Ontario  Legislation  —  New  Lieutenant-Governors  —  Prince  Edward  Island 
enters  the  Dominion,  July  1  —  "Pacific  Scandal "  Controversy  —  Parliament 
Meets,  August  13  —  Oatha  Bill  ultra  vires  —  Parliament  Prorogued  —  A  Royal 
Commission  Investigates  Charges  —  Parliament  Receives  Report  of  Com- 
mission —  The  Macdonald  Ministry  Resigns,  November  5. 

THE  relations  of  the  new  Dominion  to  the  neighbouring 
Eepublic  continued  for  some  time  to  be  imperilled  by 
complications  arising  from  Imperial  rather  than  from  colonial 
causes.  The  question  of  the  liability  of  Great  Britain  for  the 
immense  damage  done  to  American  commerce  by  the  depreda- 
tions of  the  "Alabama,"  "Florida,"  and  other  Confederate 
cruisers  sailing  from  British  ports,  was  the  occasion  of  intense 
and  prolonged  discussion  in  the  United  States.  The  political 
irritation  found  vehement  expression  in  the  public  press,  on  the 
platform,  and  even  in  the  pulpit.  Another  cause  of  interna- 
tional difficulty  also  existed.  During  the  continuance  of  the 
reciprocity  treaty,  the  deep-sea  and  inshore  fisheries  of  the 
British  North  American  coast  were  freely  thrown  open  to 
American  fishermen  by  the  conditions  of  the  treaty.  On  the 
suspension  of  reciprocity,  of  course  that  privilege  ceased. 
Yet  the  Americans  continued  to  claim  the  right  of  fishing  in 
British  waters.  The  protection  by  means  of  armed  cruisers 
of  these  valuable  preserves  against  this  unauthorized  intrusion, 
was  both  difficult  and  costly,  and  was  liable  to  lead  to  serious 
interruptions  of  international  peace. 

In  order  to  discuss,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  remove  these 


548  BISTORT  OF  C AX  AD  A. 

and  other  causes  of  irritation  between  the  two  Governments,  a 
joint  high  commission,  composed  of  eminent  statesmen  of  both 
nations,  met  at  Washington,  in  the  month  of  February,  1871. 
The  interests  of  Canada  were  represented  by  Sir  John  A. 
Macdonald  as  one  of  the  commissioners  appointed  by  the 
Imperial  Government.  The  result  of  the  negotiations  was 
expressed  by  the  Washington  Treaty,  concluded  on  the  8th  of 
May.  The  *'  Alabama  "  claims  were  jointly  referred  to  a  Ijoard 
of  arbitration  appointed  by  friendly  powers,  by  whose  decision 
each  nation  agreed  to  abide.  The  fisheries  of  both  Canada  and 
the  United  States  were  thrown  open  to  either  country.  A 
money  compensation  was,  however,  to  be  paid  to  Canada  in 
consideration  of  the  superior  value  of  her  fisheries,  the  amount 
of  compensation  to  be  decided  by  a  sub-commission.  The 
navigation  in  common  of  the  Canadian  and  United  States 
canals,  and  of  Lake  Michigan,  and  the  transport  of  dutiable 
goods  in  bond  through  either  country,  with  some  minor  privi- 
leges, were  mutually  granted.  The  San  Juan  boundary  diffi- 
culty was  referred  to  the  Emperor  of  Germany,  who  gave  his 
decision  in  favour  of  the  United  States.  The  boundaries 
between  the  North-west  Territory,  and  that  of  Alaska,  recently 
purchased  by  the  United  States  from  Kussia,  were  also  defined 
and  soon  after  surveyed. 

The  claims  of  the  Dominion  on  account  of  losses  sustained 
and  expense  incurred  by  the  Fenian  raids  were  entirely 
ignored  by  the  commission.  This  gave  much  dissatisfaction  in 
Canada,  as  did  also  the  surrender  of  her  valuable  fisheries,  for 
which  it  was  apprehended  that  no  adequate  compensation  would 
be  obtained.  Nevertheless,  although  the  power  of  veto  of  the 
fishing  clauses  of  the  treaty  was  granted  to  the  Dominion  par- 
liament, they  were  loyally  adopted  out  of  consideration  for  the 
Imperial  policy  of  Great  Britain.  The  British  Government,  in 
consideration  of  the  abandonment  by  Canada  of  the  Fenian- 
raid  claims,  guaranteed  a  Dominion  loan  of  $3,500,000,  and 
continued  its  guarantee  of  the  previous  fortification  loan  of 
$1,100,000. 

In  the  Ontario  legislature  political  parties  were  very  evenly 


CLOSE   OF  THE  MACDONALD  ADMINISTRATION.  549 

balanced.  One  result  of  confederation  had  been  the  accumula- 
tion in  the  treasury  of  the  province  of  a  large  surplus,  —  the 
proceeds  of  crown  land  and  other  revenue,  and  of  the 
Dominion  subsidy.  It  was  proposed  to  employ  a  considerable 
proportion  of  this  surplus  in  aiding  the  construction  of  rail- 
ways in  the  province.  Important  narrow-gauge  lines,  opening 
up  tho  Nipissing  and  Grey  and  Bruce  regions,  were  projected 
and  prosecuted  by  the  aid  of  bonuses,  voted  by  the  munici- 
palities benefited.  The  discussion  of  these  and  other  subjects 
was  sufficiently  acrimonious.  In  the  month  of  December, 
1871,  the  Hon.  John  Sandfield  Macdonald,  in  consequence  of  a 
vote  of  the  House  adverse  to  the  policy  of  his  Government,  in 
appropriating  $1,500,000  for  railroad  subsidies  without  taking 
a  vote  on  the  appropriations  to  the  several  roads,  resigned  the 
premiership  into  the  hands  of  Mr.  Edward  Blake.  *  It  was 
objected  by  the  new  Opposition  that  several  constituencies 
were  not  represented,  when  the  Sandfield  Macdonald  Govern- 
ment was  obliged  to  resign ;  but  Mr.  Blake  was,  nevertheless, 
able  to  command  a  good  working  majority  in  a  full  House. 
Mr.  INIacdonald  died  the  following  summer,  respected  and 
regretted  by  all  classes  of  the  community.  Among  the  impor- 
tant measures  of  the  session  was  one  disallowing  the  practice 
of  dual  representation  ;  that  is,  the  occupancy  of  seats  by  the 
same  person  in  both  the  Dominion  and  local  parliaments.  In 
consequence  of  this,  Mr.  Blake  yielded  the  office  of  premier  to 
the  Hon.  Oliver  Mowat,  who  resigned  his  position  on  the 
Bench  in  order  to  enter  again  into  political  life. 

*  The  Hon.  Edward  Blake  is  the  son  of  the  late  Hon.  William  Hume  Blake, 
a  gentleman  of  good  Irish  family,  who  became  Solicitor-General  of  Canada  in 
the  Baldwin-Lafontaine  ministry,  and  afterward  Vice-Chancellor  of  Upper 
Canada.  Tho  younger  Blake  was  educated  at  Upper  Canada  College  and 
Toronto  University,  where  he  graduated  with  honours.  He  was  called  to  the 
har  in  1856.  In  1867,  he  was  elected  representative  for  West  Durham  in  the 
first  Dominion  parliament,  and  for  South  Bruce  in  the  Ontario  legislature,  and 
became  in  the  latter  the  acknowledged  leader  of  the  Opposition.  Mr.  Blake, 
on  entering  political  life,  at  once  stepped  to  the  front  rank,  both  at  Toronto 
and  Ottawa.  His  public  addresses,  both  in  parliament  and  out  of  it,  challenge 
the  attention  of  the  country,  and  he  commands  the  respect  even  of  those  who 
most  strenuously  oppose  his  political  course. 


550  HISTORY   OF  CAyADA. 

The  marriage  of  the  Princess  Louise  to  the  Marquis  of 
Lome,  created  much  social  interest  in  Canada.  Toward  the 
close  of  the  year  1871,  the  dangerous  illness  of  the  Prince  of 
"Wales  awoke  profound  sympathy.  On  his  restoration  to 
health,  Canada  joined  heartily  in  the  national  thanksgiving  of 
the  motherland. 

In  the  month  of  June  following,  the  Right  Honourable  Sir 
1855.  Frederick  Temple,  Earl  of  Dufferin,  K.  P.,  K.  C.  B., 
succeeded  Sir  John  Young  (now  Lord  Lisgar) ,  as  Governor- 
General  of  Canada.  Lord  Dufferin  was  born  in  Ireland,  in 
1826,  in  which  country  his  ancestors  for  six  generations,  or 
two  hundred  years,  have  lived.  He  was  educated  at  Eton 
College  and  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He  succeeded  to  the 
peerage  on  his  father's  death  in  1841.  He  was  for  several 
years  a  Lord  in  waiting  to  the  Queen,  and  has  occupied  several 
public  positions  of  much  importance.  In  1859,  he  was  British 
commissioner  to  Syria  to  inquire  into  the  massacre  of  the 
Christians  in  that  country,  which  duty  he  discharged  with  dis- 
tinguished ability  and  success.  He  was  appointed  Lord  Lieu- 
tenant of  the  County  Down  in  1864.  He  was  Under-Secretary 
of  State  for  India  from  that  year  to  1866,  and  Under-Secretary 
for  War  from  1866  to  the  following  year.  He  was  Chancellor 
of  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster,  and  Paymaster-General  from  1868 
to  the  time  of  his  appointment  as  Governor-General  of  Canada. 
He  brought  with  him  a  distinguished  reputation  as  an  author. 
His  "  Letters  from  High  Latitudes  "  are  brimful  of  humour  and 
graphic  description,  his  "Notes  on  Ancient  Syria"  exhibit 
much  learning  and  research,  and  his  various  papers  on  Irish 
questions  give  evidence  of  rare  statesmanship.  By  his  genial 
courtesy  he  soon  won  a  very  remarkable  degree  of  popular 
favour.  He  promptly  identified  himself  with  every  interest  of 
the  country  which  was  calculated  to  promote  its  happiness  and 
welfare. 

After  having  rejected  the  preposterous  claims  of  the  United 
States  for  indirect  or  constructive  damages  on  account  of  the 
piracies  of  the  Confederate  cruisers,  the  Geneva  arbitration 
commission  awarded  to  that  country  the  sum  of  $15,500,000, 


CLOSE   OF  THE  MACDONALD  ADMINISTRATION.  551 

—  this  amount  to  be  adjudicated  to  claimants  in  proportion  to 
their  ascertained  losses.  Thus  was  an  example  given  of  the 
feasibility  of  settling  vexatious  international  difficulties  by  the 
peaceable  arbitration  of  intelligent  and  dispassionate  neutrals, 
instead  of  by  appeal  to  the  dread  arbitrament  of  war. 

The  **  Times"  newspaper,  indeed,  in  view  of  the  complica- 
tions in  which  it  conceived  that  Canada  involved  the  mother 
country,  advocated  its  political  divorce  from  Great  Britain. 
Tho  laureate,  Tennyson,  however,  in  a  poetical  address  to  the 
Queen,  more  correctly  interpreted  the  feelings  of  the  British 
nation  by  his  indignant  repudiation  of  the  sordid  feeling  that 
because  "  so  loyal  was  too  costly,"  would  bid  that  "  true  North" 
to  *' loose  the  bond  and  go."  The  spontaneous  outburst  of 
feeling  on  both  sides  of  the  sea  proved  that  the  bond  between 
Canada  and  the  motherland  was  one  of  mutually  strong  and 
intense  attachment. 

The  first  Dominion  parliament  having  expired  by  effluxion  of 
time,  a  general  election  was  held  during  the  summer  and 
autumn  of  1872  (from  July  15  to  October  12).  The  political 
excitement  in  all  the  provinces  was  very  great,  but  it  culmi- 
nated in  Ontario  and  Quebec,  where  the  most  strenuous  strug- 
gle took  place.  The  elections  resulted  in  the  return  of  a  par- 
liamentary majority  sustaining  the  ministry  of  Sir  John  A. 
Macdonald.  Sir  George  E.  Cartier,  however,  was  defeated  in 
Montreal,  but  was  elected  for  Provencher,  in  Manitoba.  Sir 
Francis  Hincks  was  also  defeated,  but  found  a  seat  as  represent- 
ative of  Vancouver  District,  in  British  Columbia. 

The  returns  of  the  census  of  1871  were  this  year  made 
public.  The  population  of  the  four  leading  provinces  was 
reported  as  follows:  —  Ontario,  1,620,851;  Quebec,  1,191,- 
516;  Nova  Scotia,  387,500;  New  Brunswick,  285,594;  total, 
3,485,761. 

The  construction  of  a  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  across  the 
continent  was  one  of  the  conditions  of  the  entrance  of  British 
Columbia  into  the  Dominion.  For  the  purpose  of  procuring 
the  contract  for  this  gigantic  undertaking,  two  rival  companies 
obtained  incorporation,  —  the  "  Canada  Pacific,"  with  Sir  Hugh 


552 


HISTORY  OF  C AX  AD  A. 


Allan,  principal  proprietor  of  the  Canadian  steamship  line,  at 
its  head;  and  the  <' Inter-Oceanic,"  with  the  Hon.  Senator 
Macpherson  as  its  president.  The  Government  was  authorized 
by  Act  of  Parliament  to  give  the  contract  for  building  the  road 
to  either  company,  or  to  the  two  companies  amalgamated,  or 
to  any  company  distinct  from  either  that  would  undertake  the 
task.  A  subsidy  of  130,000,000,  and  a  grant  of  five  million 
acres  of  land  in  alternate  blocks  along  the  line  of  railway, 
were  also  to  be  given  to  the  company  constructing  the  road. 

The  financial  state  of  the  coun- 
tiy  showed  remarkable  buoyancy, 
the  surplus  of  revenue  being 
three  and  a  half  millions.  In 
consequence  of  this  satisfactory 
condition  of  afiairs,  the  duty  on 
tea  and  coffee  was  abolished,  and 
also  the  immigrant  tax. 

A  charter  was  at  length  granted 
1873.        (February  19)  to  a  new 
"Canada  Pacific   Railway  Com- 
pany."     The  president  was   Sir 
Hugh  Allan,  *   and,   among  the 
directors,  seventeen  in  number, 
were  members  of  both  the  former  companies,  and  representa- 
tive men  from  the  different  provinces  of  the  Dominion,  together 
with  several  leading  American  capitalists. 


SIR  HUGH  AiLAN. 


*  Sir  Hugh  Allan  is  a  conspicuons  example  of  the  distinction  achieved 
through  the  energy  and  enterprise  of  Scotchmen  in  Canada.  He  was  born  at 
Saltcoats,  in  the  county  of  Ayr,  in  1810,  and  is  therefore  now  in  his  sixty-eighth 
year.  His  father  was  a  successful  ship-owner  and  captain,  trading  between 
the  Clyde  and  Montreal.  The  son  inherited  the  tastes  of  the  sire,  and  early 
manifested  predilections  for  the  shipping  business.  He  came  to  Canada  in  1826, 
and,  establishing  himself  at  Montreal,  built  up  gradually,  in  connection  with 
his  brothers,  a  large  shipping  interest.  In  1852,  his  firm,  subsidized  by  the 
Government  of  the  day,  established  a  fortnightly  line  of  steamers  to  Montreal, 
which  soon  after  became  a  weekly  line.  This  enterprise  wonderfully  stimu- 
lated the  growth  of  Montreal,  and  indeed  of  the  entire  country.  The  firm 
now  controls  one  of  the  largest  steam-fleets  afloat,  besides  a  large  fleet  of 
sailing  vessels. 


CLOSE   OF  THE  MACDOXALD  ADMIXISTRATION.  553 

Parliament  met  on  the  6th  of  March.  The  Government  had 
a  good  working  majority.  Early  in  the  session  grave  charges 
were  preferred  against  the  ministry  by  Mr.  Huntington,  the 
member  for  Shefford.  They  were  accused  of  malfeasance  of 
office  in  connection  with  the  granting  of  the  Pacific  Eailway 
charter,  and  Mr.  Huntington  moved  for  the  appointment  of  a 
committee  of  investigation  of  the  alleged  malfeasance.  The 
ministry  regarded  the  motion  as  one  of  want  of  confidence, 
and,  without  debate,  called  for  a  division.  They  were  sus- 
tained, in  a  house  of  a  hundred  and  eighty-three  members,  by 
a  majority  of  thirty-one. 

A  few  days  after,  however,  Sir  John  A.  Macdonald  himself 
brought  in  a  resolution  for  the  appointment  of  a  committee  of 
investigation.  A  committee  was  accordingly  appointed,  con- 
sisting of  Messrs.  John  Hillyard  Cameron,  J.  Macdonald  (of 
Pictou,  N.  S.),  and  Dr.  Blanchet,  from  the  Ministerial  side  of 
the  House,  and  IMessrs.  Blake  and  Dorionfrom  the  Opposition. 
Mr.  John  Hillyard  Cameron,  the  chairman  of  the  committee, 
introduced  a  bill,  giving  it  authority  to  examine  witnesses  on 
oath.  Although  the  legality  of  the  bill  was  questioned  at  the 
time,  it  was  passed  without  opposition.  The  committee,  on 
meeting,  adjourned  till  the  month  of  July  to  give  an  oppor- 
tunity for  the  return  of  Sir  Hugh  Allan  and  other  persons  con- 
cerned, who  were  at  the  time  in  Great  Britain.  The  House 
rose  in  June,  —  by  adjournment,  not  by  prorogation,  which 
would  have  destroyed  the  existence  of  the  committee,  —  to 
m6et  on  the  13th  of  August  for  the  reception  of  the  committee's 
report.  An  Act  prohibiting  dual  representation  had  been 
passed,  and  one  providing  for  election  by  ballot  was  introduced, 
but  was  not  carried  beyond  its  second  reading. 

Early  in  the  year  Canada  had  lost  two  of  her  most  distin- 
guished statesmen.  On  the  27th  of  May,  Sir  George  E.  Car- 
tier,  Minister  of  Militia,  died  at  London.  He  possessed  great 
popularity  and  political  influence  among  his  French-Canadian 
fellow-countrymen.  As  a  national  tribute  to  his  official  posi- 
tion, distinguished  ability,  and  the  deserved  esteem  in  which 
70 


554  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

he  was  held,  his  remains  were  interred  with  imposing  obsequies 
at  Montreal. 

On  the  1st  of  June,  the  Hon.  Joseph  Howe  died  at  the  Gov- 
ernment House  in  Halifax.  He  had  only  a  few  days  previously 
been  appointed  Lieutenant-Governor  of  his  native  province. 
He  held  his  first  levee  lying  in  state  upon  his  bier. 

The  local  legislature  of  Ontario  met  on  January  the  8th. 
Among  the  more  important  Acts  of  the  session  was  one  re- 
adjusting the  Municipal  Loan  Fund  indebtedness  in  a  manner 
equitable  to  both  indebted  and  unindebted  municipalities  ;  also 
an  Act  giving  a  new  constitution  to  Toronto  University,  and 
one  consolidating  the  Municipal  Acts.  The  crown-land  policy 
of  the  Government  was  attacked  by  the  Opposition,  and  much 
hostile  criticism  was  incurred  by  the  rejection  of  the  Orange 
Incorporation  Bill.  Mr.  Scott,  on  becoming  a  Privy  Coun- 
cillor, was  succeeded  as  Crown-Land  Commissioner  by  Mr. 
Pardee,  and  Mr.  Frazer  became  Provincial  Secretary.  The 
immigration  to  the  province  of  Ontario  during  the  season 
reached  the  number  of  thirty-eight  thousand,  a  considerable 
number  of  whom  were  Kussian  Mennonites,  against  twenty- 
eight  thousand  in  1872.  Mr.  Rowland  was  succeeded  as 
Lieutenant-Governor  by  Mr.  John  Crawford. 

In  British  Columbia  a  new  ministry  was  formed  under  the 
premiership  of  Mr.  De  Cosmos. 

In  Manitoba,  as  already  mentioned,  Mr.  Chief-Justice 
Morris  succeeded  Mr.  Archibald  as  Lieutenant-Governor,  the 
latter  becoming  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Nova  Scotia  on  the 
death  of  Mr.  Howe. 

In  Quebec,  Mr.  Caron  became  Lieutenant-Governor,  vice  Sir 
N,  Belleau ;  and,  in  New  Brunswick,  Mr.  Tilley  succeeded 
Mr.  Wilmot. 

The  country  was  stirred  to  sympathy  by  the  tragical  wreck 
on  the  coast  of  Nova  Scotia,  near  Halifax  harbour,  of  the 
steamship  "Atlantic,"  whereby  five  hundred  lives  were  lost. 
On  the  same  iron-bound  coast  the  steamship  "  City  of  Wash- 
ington" was  also  wrecked,  but,  happily,  without  loss  of  life. 

On  the  Ist  of  July  (Dominion  Day) ,  Prince  Edward  Island 


CLOSE   OF  THE  MACDOXALD  ADMiyiSTEATIOX.  555 

was  admitted  into  the  Canadian  confederacy  upon  conditions 
described  in  the  chapter  on  the  history  of  that  province.  The 
consummation  of  the  union  was  celebrated  with  great  festivity 
at  Charlottetown,  the  capital  of  the  island. 

A  general  re-adjustment  of  the  financial  relations  of  the 
provinces  to  the  Dominion  took  place.  Ontario  and  Quebec 
were  relieved  of  a  portion  of  their  debt,  and  the  other  prov- 
inces received  an  increase  in  their  annual  subsidy.  New 
Brunswick  received,  in  addition,  an  annual  grant  of  $150,000 
to  compensate  for  the  loss  of  her  timber-dues  under  the  Treaty 
of  Washington. 

During  the  summer.  Lord  and  Lady  Dufferin  made  a  prog- 
ress through  the  maritime  provinces,  winning  all  hearts  by 
their  refined  and  genial  courtesy.  They  were  everywhere 
received  with  the  most  loyal  demonstrations. 

During  the  recess  of  parliament  certain  correspondence 
between  Sir  Hugh  Allan  and  some  American  capitalists,  which 
was  published  in  the  newspapers,  seemed  to  inculpate  the  Gov- 
ernment in  what  was  now  designated  the  "Pacific  Scandal," 
and  seriously  damaged  their  position.  The  burden  of  the 
charge  was  that  the  Government  had  received  from  Sir  Hugh 
Allan  and  American  capitalists,  in  consideration  of  granting 
them  the  Pacific  Railway  charter,  large  sums  of  money  to  be 
used  in  carrying  the  elections  in  the  interest  of  the  Ministerial 
party.  It  was  contended,  on  the  other  hand,  that  these  sums 
were  the  contributions  of  political  friends,  without  corrupt 
motive.  Intense  partisan  feeling  prevailed  throughout  the 
Dominion,  and,  by  a  large  number  of  persons,  the  case  was 
prejudged,  and  the  Government  already  condemned. 

When  parliament  met,  on  the  13th  of  August,  the  committee 
of  investigation  failed  to  report,  as  the  Imperial  Government 
had  on  legal  grounds  disallowed  the  Oaths  Bill,  under  which  it 
was  authorized  to  receive  sworn  testimony.  An  address,  signed 
by  ninety-two  members  of  parliament,  chiefly  occupants  of  the 
Opposition  benches,  was  presented  to  the  Governor-General, 
praying  that  he  would  not  prorogue  the  House  until  the 
charges  against  the  Government  had  been  fully  investigated. 


556  HISTORY  OF  CAXADA. 

His  Excellency,  however,  considered  himself  bound  by  consti- 
tutional reasons  to  carry  out  the  programme  announced,  and, 
amid  a  scene  of  extraordinary  tumult  and  commotion,  and  loud 
cries  of  "  Privilege,"  the  Usher  of  the  Black  Rod  summoned 
the  Commons  to  the  Senate  Chamber  for  prorogation. 

A  royal  commission,  composed  of  Messrs.  Justice  Day, 
Justice  Polette,  and  Judge  Go  wan,  was  appointed  by  His 
Excellency  to  receive  the  testimony  of  sworn  witnesses  on  the 
charges  against  the  Government. 

Mr.  Huntington  refused  to  appear  before  the  commission,  on 
the  ground  that  he  considered  its  appointment  an  invasion  of 
the  privileges  of  parliament.  The  commission  proceeded, 
however,  to  the  examination  of  witnesses,  including  the  lead- 
ing members  of  the  Government,  and  others  whose  names  had 
been  previously  cited  by  Mr.  Huntington.  The  testimony  of 
these  witnesses  seemed  considerably  to  mitigate  the  burden  of 
the  charges.  The  Opposition  press  complained,  however,  that 
there  was  no  cross-examination  of  the  witnesses,  and  the  Min- 
isterial press  charged  the  Opposition  with  seeking  evidence  in 
a  surreptitious  and  underhand  manner.  Party  feeling  ran  very 
high,  and  mutual  recriminations  were  very  severe. 

Parliament  met  again  on  the  23d  of  October,  to  receive  the 
report  of  the  royal  commission,  presenting  the  unprecedented 
circumstance  of  being  in  session  three  times  within  five  months. 
The  report  of  the  commissioners  was  an  elaborate  and  exhaus- 
tive document,  but  it  was  confined  to  a  statement  of  matters  of 
evidence,  without  expressing  any  judicial  opinion  upon  the 
subject. 

In  amendment  to  the  address  in  reply  to  the  speech  from  the 
throne,  Mr.  Mackenzie,  the  leader  of  the  Opposition,  moved  a 
resolution  of  censure  on  the  Government.  The  debate  that 
ensued  was  one  of  intense  interest.  The  galleries  of  the 
House  were  crowded  day  after  day  with  eager  listeners  from  all 
parts  of  the  country.  For  seven  days  the  debate  continued. 
Many  former  supporters  of  the  Government  announced  their 
condemnation  of  the  ministry,  and  their  intention  to  vote 
against  it.     At  length,  without  waiting  for  the  House  to  come 


CLOSE   OF  THE  MACDOXALD  ADMINISTRATION.  557 

to  a  vote,  Sir  John  A.  Macdonald  announced  the  resignation 
of  his  cabinet,  November  5.  * 

*  The  following  changes  in  the  constitution  of  the  Cabinet  had  taken  place 
during  the  period  covered  by  this  chapter.  The  Hon.  Dr.  Tupper,  N.  S., 
became  successively,  in  1872  aud  1873,  Minister  of  Inland  Revenue  and  Minister 
of  Customs;  the  Hon.  J.  H.  Pope  of  Quebec,  became,  in  1872,  Minister  of 
Agriculture ;  the  Hon.  J.  O'Connor  of  Ontario,  successively  President  of  the 
Council,  Minister  of  Inland  Eevenue,  and  Postmaster-General ;  the  Hon.  Theo. 
Eobitaille  of  Quebec,  became,  iu  1873,  Receiver-General ;  the  Hon.  Thomas  N. 
Gibbs  of  Ontario,  successively  Secretary  of  State  for  the  Provinces,  and  Minis- 
ter of  Inland  Revenue ;  and  the  Hon.  Hugh  McDonald,  N.  S.,  successively 
President  of  the  Council,  and  Minister  of  Militia.  Room  was  made  for  these 
changes  by  the  death  of  Sir  George  E.  Cartier,  by  appointments  to  the  Bench 
of  Hon.  C.  Dunkin  and  Hon.  A.  Morris,  by  the  appointment  to  the  Governor- 
ship of  Nova  Scotia  of  Hou.  Joseph  Howe,  and  by  internal  transfers  of  office. 


558 


HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 


CHAPTER  XLIX. 


THE    MACKENZIE    ADMINISTRATION. 

Constitution  of  New  Government — Parliament  Dissolved — Simultaneous 
Elections,  January  29,  1874  —  New  Pacific  Eailway  Act  —  Controverted 
Elections  Act  —  Qu  'Appelle  Treaty  with  North-west  Indians  —  Ontario  Elec- 
tions, 1875  —  Red  River  Amnesty  —  Changes  in  Ministry  —  Guibord  Riot  and 
Pilgrimage  Riots — Organization  of  North-west  Council  and  District  of 
Kewatin,  1876  —  Opening  of  Intercolonial  Railway  —  Canada  at  the  Cen- 
tennial Exhibition  —  Internal  Development  —  The  Commons  Sessions  of  1877 

—  Ontario  —  St.  John's  Fire  —  The  Fishery  Award  —  The  Commons  Session, 
1878  —  Ontario  Parliament  -Dismissal  of  the  De  Boucherville  Ministry, 
Quebec  —  The  Joly  Ministry  —  Party  Riots  in  Montreal  —  Boundary  Award 

—  Marquis  of  Lome  to  be  Governor-General  —  The  Queen's  Gift  —  Canadian 
Loyalty  —  General  Elections. 


THE  Governor-General  called  upon  Mr.  Mackenzie  *  to 
form  a  new  ministry.  He  promptly  complied,  and,  on 
the  7th  of  November,  submitted  to  ^  His  Excellency  the  follow- 
ing cabinet :  — 

*  Mr.  Mackenzie,  the  new  premier,  like 
many  others  of  the  public  men  of  Canada, 
has  been  the  architect  of  his  own  fortunes. 
He  was  bom  near  Dunkeld,  Perthshire,  in 
1822.  He  received  his  early  education  in 
the  public  school  of  his  nativeparish.  Left 
an  orphan  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  he  earned 
his  living  by  the  labour  of  his  hands,  while 
he  continued  his  unremitting  work  of  self- 
education.  He  emigrated  to  Sarnia,  in 
Upper  Canada,  in  1842.  He  felt  a  strong 
interest  in  the  struggle  for  responsible  gov- 
ernment in  his  adopted  country,  and  took 
an  active  part  in  the  advocacy  of  liberal 
principles.  In  1861,  he  was  elected  mem- 
ber of  parliament  for  Lambton,  which 
constituency  he  has  ever  since  represented. 
On  the  passage  of  the  Act  disallowing  dual  representation,  he  resigned  his  seat 
in  the  Ontario  parliament  for  that  at  Ottawa,  where  he  soon  became  the 
acknowledged  leader  of  the  Opposition. 


HON.  ALEX.   MACKENZIE. 


THE  MACKENZIE  ADMINISTRATION.  559 

Hon.  Alexander  Mackenzie,        .    Minister  of  Public  Works. 

Hon.  A.  A.  Dorion, 

Hon.  Edward  Blake,    . 

Hon.  Albert  J.  Smith, . 

Hon.  L.  De  St.  Just,     . 

Hon.  R.  J.  Cartwright, 

Hon.  David  Laird, 

Hon.  David  Christie,   . 

Hon.  Isaac  Burpee, 

Hon.  D.  A.  Macdonald, 

Hon.  Thomas  Coffin,    . 

Hon.  T^lesphore  Fournier, 

Hon.  William  Ross, 

Hon.  R.  W.  Scott, 


Minister  of  Justice. 

Without  portfolio. 

Minister  of  Marine  and  Fisheries. 

Minister  of  Agriculture  and  Statistics. 

Minister  of  Finance. 

Minister  of  the  Interior. 

Secretary  of  State. 

Minister  of  Customs. 

Postmaster-General. 

Receiver-General. 

Minister  of  Inland  Revenue. 

Minister  of  Militia  and  Defence. 

Without  portfolio. 


The  new  ministers  on  returning  to  their  constituencies  were 
re-elected  by  large  majorities.  As  a  new  issue  had  come  before 
the  country  since  the  general  election,  and  as  it  was  alleged  that 
several  members  of  the  House  were  returned  by  corrupt  prac- 
tices for  the  support  of  the  late  administration,  Mr.  Mackenzie 
requested  a  dissolution  of  parliament,  and  a  fresh  appeal  to 
the  country. 

During  the  Christmas  recess,  therefore,  the  House  was  dis- 
solved, January  3.  The  nominations,  with  few  excep-  1874. 
tions,  took  place  on  January  22,  and  the  elections,  for  the  most 
part,  one  week  later.  The  political  contest  was  very  keen  and 
animated.  Old  party  lines  were  in  many  cases  obliterated,  and 
not  a  few  life-long  Conservatives  voted  against  the  party  which 
so  long  had  ruled  the  destinies  of  the  country. 

The  night  following  the  election  was  one  of  intense  excite- 
ment. It  was  the  first  election  for  the  Dominion  parliament  at 
which  voting,  with  the  exception  of  in  a  few  outlying  constituen- 
cies, was  simultaneous.  Through  the  midnight  hours  multi- 
tudes thronged  the  streets  of  the  cities  to  read  the  successive 
telegraphic  bulletins  at  the  newspaper  offices.  Tar-barrels 
blazed,  and  torchlight  processions  and  music  celebrated  the 
triumph  of  the  victorious  candidates.  The  following  morning 
returns  from  nearly  all  the  constituencies  were  published  in  the 
daily  papers,  recording  a  large  majority  in  favour  of  the  Gov- 
ernment. An  administration  which  had  the  honour  of  guiding 
the  early  fortunes  of  the  new  confederation  of  provinces,  which 


560  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

had  exhibited  marked  ability,  and  had  rendered  distinguished 
service  to  the  country,  lost  the  previously  accorded  support  of 
a  large  number  of  constituencies,  especially  in  the  province  of 
Ontario. 

There  were,  however,  many  contested  elections.  The  inves- 
tigation of  these  had,  by  an  Act  of  the  previous  session,  been 
removed  from  the  jurisdiction  of  a  parliamentary  committee, 
and  referred  to  the  civil  courts.  The  hearing  of  the  protests, 
however,  was  postponed,  from  the  inability  of  the  judges  to 
overtake  the  work,  till  after  the  summer  parliamentary  recess. 
Parliament  met  on  the  26th  of  March.  The  Hon.  T.  W. 
Anglin  of  New  Brunswick,  was  elected  Speaker  of  the  House 
of  Commons,  and  the  Hon.  David  Christie  was  appointed 
president  of  the  Senate.  Arrangements  were  made  for  the 
publication  of  a  Canadian  *' Hansard,"  containing  the  official 
report  of  the  proceedings  of  parliament. 

The  Government  had  a  larger  numerical  following  than  that 
of  any  previous  ministry  in  Canada.  It  was  claimed  that  in  a 
House  of  two  hundred  and  six  members,  three-fourths  were 
supporters  of  the  administration.  The  Hon.  George  Brown, 
and  the  Hon.  K.  W.  Scott,  entered  the  Dominion  Senate. 
Before  the  parliament  met,  Mr.  Blake,  who,  under  a  temporary 
arrangement,  held  office  without  portfolio,  resigned. 

Mr.  Louis  Kiel  having  been  elected  representative  for  Prov- 
encher,  in  Manitoba,  appeared  in  Ottawa  and  signed  the  roll  of 
the  House,  taking  the  oath  required  of  its  members.  Mr. 
Mackenzie  Bo  well  moved  his  expulsion  from  parliament  as  a 
"fugitive  from  justice,"  a  true  bill  having  been  found  against 
him  as  one  of  the  murderers  of  Thomas  Scott,  by  the  grand 
jury  of  Manitoba,  and  sentence  of  outlawry  pronounced. 
Evidence  substantiating  these  facts  was  taken  at  the  bar  of  the 
House,  and  the  sentence  of  expulsion  was  almost  unanimously 
carried,  only  two  members  voting  against  it.  Kiel  was  subse- 
quently re-elected  by  the  same  constituency  of  Provencher,  but 
did  not  again  attempt  to  take  his  seat. 

The  session  was  a  short  but  busy  one.  Sir  Hugh  Allan  had 
found  himself  unable,  on  behalf  of  the  Pacific  Railway  Com- 


THE  MACKENZIE  ADMINISTRATION. 


6G1 


pany,  to  obtain  the  money  in  England  for  the  construction  of 
the  road,  and  resigned  the  charter  into  the  hands  of  the  Gov- 
ernment. A  new  Pacific  Railway  Act  was  therefore  passed, 
empowering  the  Governpient  to  construct  the  road  in  sections, 
and  to  make  use  of  the  water-stretches  on  the  route  till  the 


1 


W      |: 


I 


v,\:\mmu^  \hk.m^\i 


111  "!W 


entire  road  should  be  completed.     The  Lake  Superior  terminus 
was  fixed  at  the  mouth  of  the  Kaministiquia,  Thunder  Bay,  — 
a  safe  harbour  on  a  majestic  roadstead  guarded  by  the  stately 
71 


562  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

bluff,  Thunder  Cape,  a  mass  of  basaltic  rock,  rising  thirteen 
hundred  feet  in  air. 

A  more  stringent  Controverted  Elections  Act  than  that  of 
1872  was  passed,  which  contributed  very  greatly  to  electoral 
purity,  and  the  suppression  of  corrupt  practices.  A  bill  was 
also  passed  for  re-organizing  the  militia  and  for  establishing  a 
military  college  at  Kingston.  Numerous  petitions  were  pre- 
sented to  the  House,  praying  for  the  abolition  of  the  liquor 
traffic.  The  Government  appointed  a  royal  commission  to 
investigate  the  operation  of  the  prohibitory  law  in  those  States 
of  the  American  Union  where  it  had  been  introduced.  The 
report  of  this  commission  established  the  fact  of  the  general 
repression  of  crime  and  pauperism  where  the  prohibition  of 
the  traffic  had  been  enforced. 

IVIr.  Cartwright,  the  Finance  Minister,  announced  an  antici- 
pated deficit  in  the  public  revenue,  which  he  proposed  to  meet 
by  an  increase  of  the  customs  duties  from  fifteen  to  seventeen 
and  a  half  per  cent.  He  also  effected  a  Dominion  loan  of 
$20,000,000  in  the  London  money  market  at  favourable  rates. 

After  the  summer  vacation,  protests  against  the  contested 
elections  were  heard.  The  new  election  law  was  found  to  be 
prompt,  impartial,  and  effective  in  its  operation.  Every  mem- 
ber whose  election  was  protested  against  was  unseated,  some- 
times on  purely  technical  groimds  ;  but  all  but  three  who  offered 
themselves  were  re-elected.  The  introduction  of  the  ballot 
contributed  very  greatly  to  electoral  purity.  The  elections  for 
the  voided  seats  largely  occupied  public  attention  for  the 
remainder  of  the  year. 

During  the  summer  negotiations  were  carried  on  between  Sir 
Edward  Thornton,  British  minister  at  Washington,  and  the  Hon. 
George  Brown,  representing  Canada,  and  the  Hon.  Mr.  Fish, 
Secretary  of  the  United  States,  for  the  renewing  of  a  reciprocity 
treaty.  On  the  23d  of  June,  a  draft  of  a  treaty,  which  had 
been  approved  by  the  Governments  of  Great  Britain  and  Canada 
as  the  best  that  could  be  effected  under  the  circumstances, 
although  by  no  means  so  advantageous  to  Canadian  interests  as 
was  desirable,  was  submitted  by  President  Grant  to  the  United 


THE  MACKENZIE  ADMIXISTRATIOX.  563 

States  Senate  ' '  for  advice."  It  was,  however,  ultimately  vetoed 
by  that  body.  Its  failure  caused  little  regret  in  Canada,  so 
imfavourable  were  its  conditions. 

In  the  Ontario  parliament  a  mass  of  useful  legislation  was 
accomplished.  The  Public-School  Act  was  consolidated.  The 
representation  of  the  province  was  re-adjusted.  Six  new  seats 
were  created,  increasing  the  number  of  members  to  eighty- 
eight.  The  surplus  in  the  treasury  arising  from  accumulated 
Dominion  subsidy,  crown  land  and  other  revenue,  amounted  to 
over  $4,000,000. 

During  the  summer  Lord  Dufferin  made  an  extended  tour 
through  the  upper  lakes,  and  evinced  his  deep  interest  in  the 
magnificent  scenery  and  grand  resources  of  that  portion  of  the 
Dominion.  During  a  brief  visit  at  Chicago,  he  accepted  the 
hospitality  of  the  city,  and  reciprocated  the  expressions  of  inter- 
national courtesy  which  he  received. 

In  the  North-west  the  Qu'Appelle  treaty  was  concluded  with 
the  Indians  having  territorial  rights  between  Fort  Ellice  and 
the  South  Saskatchewan,  which,  in  consideration  of  generous 
reserves  and  annual  presents,  extinguished  the  Indian  title  to 
seventy-five  thousand  square  miles,  and  prepared  the  way  for 
its  future  settlement.  Previous  treaties  had  ceded  the  whole 
of  jManitoba  and  the  Kewatin  District.  A  considerable  immi- 
gration of  Mennonites  and  Icelanders  took  place  into  the  prov- 
ince of  Manitoba.  They  received  generous  Government  aid 
and  favourably  situated  grants  of  land. 

One  of  the  chief  social  events  of  the  year  was  the  marriage 
of  the  Duke  of  Edinburgh  with  the  daughter  of  the  Emperor 
of  Russia,  an  alliance  which  seemed  the  pledge  of  the  renewal 
of  an  international  friendship,  unhappily  interrupted  by  the 
disastrous  Crimean  war. 

Early  in  the  year  the  province  of  Ontario  elected  its  third 
Legislative  Assembly.  Additional  interest  was  felt  in  the  elec- 
tion from  the  fact  that  voting  by  ballot  was  for  the  first  time 
introduced.  No  less  than  tw^enty-four  petitions  were  filed 
against  members  elect,  under  the  provisions  of  the  Controverted 
Elections  Act.    The  result  of  the  trials,  however,  did  not  mate- 


564  HISTORY   OF   C AX  AD  A. 

rially  affect  the  balance  of  parties.  Though  many  seats  were 
voided,  this  seems  to  have  been  generally  the  effect  of  minor 
violations  of  an  extremely  stringent  law,  rather  than  from  any 
grave  or  general  attempt  at  electoral  corruption. 

Canadian  readers  of  the  daily  press  followed  with  especial 
interest  the  victorious  career  of  Sir  Garnet  "Wolseley  in  his 
conduct  of  the  Ashantee  war,  and  the  capture,  early  in  the  year, 
of  the  barbarian  stronghold  of  Coomassie.  The  military  skill 
that  had  been  exhibited  in  penetrating  the  wilderness  of  Canada 
was  still  more  strikingly  manifested  in  conquering  the  difficul- 
ties of  the  African  jungle. 

The  Dominion  parliament  assembled  on  the  4th  of  February. 
1875.  The  session,  though  short,  was  busy.  A  prominent  sub- 
ject of  discussion  was  that  of  granting  an  amnesty  to  persons 
inculpated  in  the  disturbances  in  the  North-west  territories  dur- 
ing the  years  1869  and  1870.  Lepine,  the  associate  of  Eiel  in 
the  insurrection,  had  been  tried  before  Chief-Justice  Wood  of 
Manitoba,  for  the  murder  of  Scott,  and  had  been  found  guilty 
and  sentenced  to  death.  Petitions  were  presented  for  his 
reprieve,  and  the  question  of  general  amnesty  became  the  sub- 
ject of  a  prolonged  and  animated  debate.  The  policy  of  the 
Government  qualified  the  amnesty  with  regard  to  the  two  prin- 
cipal agents  in  the  insurrection,  Eiel  and  Lepine,  by  imposing 
on  them  banishment  from  the  country  for  the  period  of  five 
years.  This  was  sustained  by  a  vote  in  the  House  of  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty-six  yeas  to  fifty  nays.  Kiel  was  disqualified 
from  sitting  in  the  House  of  Commons,  having  been  declared 
an  outlaw  by  the  Court  of  Queen's  Bench,  and  a  writ  was  issued 
for  a  new  election.  O'Donohue,  in  consequence  of  his  inculpa- 
tion in  the  Fenian  invasion  of  Manitoba  in  1871,  was  excluded 
altogether  from  the  privileges  of  the  amnesty. 

Another  important  piece  of  legislation  was  the  constitution 
of  a  Supreme  Court  of  Appeal  for  the  Dominion.*  The  pro- 
visions for  improved  postal  service  and  free  delivery  of  letters 

*  It  Avas  composed  of  Chief-Justice  Richards  and  the  puisne  judges,  Mr.  Jus- 
tice Strong,  Hon.  T.  Fournier,  Mr.  Justice  Taschereau,  Hon.  Mr.  Henry,  Q.  C, 
and  Chief-Justice  Ritchie  of  New  Brunswick. 


THE  MACKENZIE  ADMINISTRATION.  5G5 

in  cities  ;  and  the  legislation  on  banJvS  and  banking,  insurance, 
raihvay  traffic,  and  other  subjects  of  a  like  practical  nature, 
were  of  much  benefit  to  the  mercantile  community.  A  bill 
sanctioning  the  construction  by  the  Dominion  Government  of  a 
railway  in  Yancouver's  Island,  in  accordance  Avith  an  agreement 
with  the  province  of  British  Columbia,  was  passed  by  the  Com- 
mons, but  was  thrown  out  by  the  Senate. 

A  postal  convention  was  concluded  with  the  United  States, 
providhig  for  the  transmission  of  letters  and  papers  from  either 
country  to  the  other  at  single  instead  of  double  postage  rates. 
Additional  facilities  were  also  giveo  for  the  diffusion  of  intelli- 
gence by  the  large  reduction  of  postage  on  periodicals. 

Some  important  changes  took  place  in  the  personnel  of  the 
Government.  The  Hon.  Edward  Blake  accepted  office  as 
Minister  of  Justice,  the  Hon.  J.  E.  Cauchon  became  President 
of  the  Council,  the  Hon.  L.  S.  Huntington  became  Postmaster- 
General,  the  Hon.  Felix  Geoffrion  became  Minister  of  Inland 
Revenue,  and  the  Hon.  "W.  B.  Vail,  formerly  a  member  of  the 
Government  of  Nova  Scotia,  became  Minister  of  Militia ;  the 
previous  occupants  of  these  offices  having  received  civil  or  legal 
appointments. 

During  the  summer  Lord  Dufferin  visited  Great  Britain,  and 
in  an  eloquent  address  before  the  Canada  Club,  which  was 
warmly  responded  to  by  the  country,  and  which  attracted  much 
attention  from  the  English  press,  highly  eulogized  the  Dominion, 
and  vindicated  its  claims  upon  the  regard  of  the  mother  country. 
A  loan  of  £2,500,000  sterling  was  effected  in  the  London 
money  market,  at  rates  that  showed  the  favourable  estimate  of 
Canadian  securities.  A  severe  monetary  stringency,  however, 
which  has  continued  with  slight  alleviation  to  the  present  time, 
led  to  much  commercial  and  manufacturing  depression,  causing 
many  insolvencies,  and  leading  to  a  wise  and  necessary  de- 
crease in  importation,  although  at  the  cost  of  a  lessened  customs 
revenue. 

In  the  North-west  Territory  tne  presence  of  an  efficient  force 
of  three  hundred  mounted  police,  and  the  appointment  of  sti- 
pendiary magistrates,   ensured  the  preservation  of  peace  and 


526  nisTORT  OF  can' ad  a. 

order  throughout  those  wide  regions,  and  prevented  the  evils 
of  the  liquor  traffic  —  that  bane  of  their  race  —  among  the 
Indian  tribes.  A  steamboat  successfully  sailed  up  the  Sas- 
katchewan River,  the  pioneer  of  the  great  commercial  fleet  that 
shall  yet  navigate  those  inland  waters.  Successful  negotiations 
were  also  opened  with  the  Plain  Indians  of  the  far  West,  with  a 
view  to  the  visits  of  commissioners  and  the  formation  of  treaties 
with  them. 

The  railway  interests  of  the  Dominion  sufiered  from  a  con- 
siderable reduction  of  traffic  consequent  on  the  depressed  state 
of  trade,  both  in  the  United  States  and  Canada.  The  Canada 
Southern  Railway  came  under  the  control  of  Commodore  Yan- 
derbilt  by  purchase.  A  severe  attack  was  made  on  the  Cana- 
dian railway  system  in  the  London  papers  by  Mr.  Potter,  the 
president  of  the  Grand  Trunk  Railway.  As  a  consequence, 
the  promoters  of  a  direct  line  from  Quebec  to  Montreal  and 
Ottawa  were  unable  to  effect  the  necessary  loan  in  the  London 
money  market.  The  Quebec  Government,  however,  resolved 
to  assume  the  construction  of  the  road,  which  will  open  up  a 
valuable  section  of  country,  and  will  prove  an  important  link 
in  the  inter-oceanic  railway  communication. 

The  tendency  to  ecclesiastical  consolidation,  an  indirect 
result  of  the  political  confederation,  was  illustrated  by  the 
union  of  all  the  Presbyterian  Churches  of  the  Dominion, 
following  shortly  on  that  of  three  branches  of  the  Methodist 
Church. 

In  two  of  the  principal  cities  of  the  Dominion,  unhappy  riots 
occurred,  which  produced  intense  excitement  throughout  the 
country.  In  Montreal,  an  attempt  to  bury  the  remains  of 
Joseph  Guibord,  in  accordance  with  an  order  of  the  Privy 
Council  of  England,  in  the  Catholic  cemetery,  from  which  they 
had  been  interdicted  by  ecclesiastical  censure,  was  for  a  time 
frustrated  by  mob  violence.  The  presence  of  a  strong  civil 
and  military  force,  and  the  pacific  counsels  of  the  Catholic 
clergy,  prevented  any  outbreak  of  violence  on  a  second  attempt, 
when  the  interment  took  place  without  interruption. 

A  few  weeks  later,  in  the  city  of  Toronto,  a  Catholic  proces- 


THE  MACKEXZIE  ADMIXISTRATIOX.  5G7 

sion  proceeding  from  church  to  church  was  attacked  on  two 
successive  Sundays,  —  September  26  and  Octo])er  3,  —  by  a 
lawless  mob.  On  the  second  occasion  the  procession  was 
escorted  by  a  strong  force  of  police,  a  military  corps  being 
held  in  reserve.  Several  stubborn  conflicts  took  place  between 
the  mob  and  the  police,  in  which  stones  were  freely  used, 
several  pistol-shots  fired,  and  many  persons  seriously  injured. 
The  riot,  however,  was  rigorously  suppressed  by  the  civic 
authorities,  and  many  of  the  rioters  were  arrested,  tried,  and 
sentenced  to  various  terms  of  imprisonment. 

The  military  college  at  Kingston,  for  the  education  of  officers 
of  the  Canadian  militia,  was  successfully  inaugurated  in  accord- 
ance with  an  Act  of  the  Dominion  Legislature ;  and  a  new 
normal  school  for  the  training  of  teachers  was  opened  at 
Ottawa  under  the  auspices  of  the  Ontario  Government.  The 
Prince  Edward  Island  Eailway  was  also  opened  under  the 
management  of  the  Dominion  authorities. 

By  a  graceful  act  of  justice,  the  surviving  veterans  of  the 
war  of  1812-14,  nearly  three  thousand  in  number,  received  a 
handsome  gratuity,  by  vote  of  the  Dominion  parliament,  in 
recognition  of  their  patriotic  services. 

During  the  year  the  country  was  called  upon  to  mourn  the 
death  of  one  of  her  most  distinguished  sons,  Sir  William 
Logan,  the  eminent  geologist.  Li  the  month  of  May  also  died 
the  Hon.  John  Crawford,  the  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Ontario, 
greatly  respected  by  all  classes  of  the  community.  He  was 
succeeded  in  office  by  the  Hon.  Donald  Macdonald,  previously 
Postmaster-General  of  the  Dominion. 

In  New  Brunswick,  the  enforcement  of  the  public-school  law 
led  to  a  disturbance  and  loss  of  life  at  Caraquet,  and  to  the 
trial  and  conviction  of  the  chief  offenders.  The  separate  school 
difficulty  in  that  province,  —  which  was  the  occasion  of  much 
acrimonious  debate  in  the  Dominion  parliament  during  several 
sessions,  and  which  involved  constitutional  issues  of  the 
gravest  importance  as  to  the  relations  of  the  provincial  and 
federal  Governments,  —  deserves  a  somewhat  detailed  recapitu- 
lation.    In  1871,  the  legislature  of  New  Brunswick  passed  a 


568  BISTORT  OF  CAXADA. 

Common-School  Act,  making  assessment  compulsory,  and 
enacting  that  all  schools,  to  be  entitled  to  aid  from  the  public 
funds,  must  be  non-sectarian.  The  immediate  effect  of  this 
Act  was  to  deprive  all  denominational  academies  and  schools  of 
the  legislative  grants  which  they  had  previously  received. 

The  ninety-third  clause  of  the  British  North  America  Act 
gives  to  the  provincial  legislatures  the  exclusive  right  to  make 
laws  on  the  subject  of  education,  but  with  the  provision  that 
nothing  in  any  such  law  shall  limit  any  privileges  existing  at 
the  time  of  the  union.  The  Catholic  minority  of  New  Bruns- 
wick asserted  that  this  exception  to  the  education  clause  of  the 
Union  Act  guaranteed  their  right  to  legislative  grants  for  their 
denominational  schools.  They  therefore  petitioned  tlie  Privy 
Council  to  advise  the  Governor-General  to  disallow  the  Com- 
mon-School Act  of  the  New  Brunswick  legislature.  The  Privy 
Council,  however,  declined  so  to  advise  His  Excellency,  the 
Minister  of  Justice,  Sir  John  A.  Macdonald,  contending  that 
the  jurisdiction  of  New  Brunswick  was  supreme  in  the  matter, 
and  that  the  exception  to  the  education  clause  of  the  Union 
Act  did  not  apply  to  the  case. 

This  decision  proving  exceedingly  unsatisfactory  to  the 
petitioners,  Mr.  Chauveau,  the  member  for  Quebec  County, 
moved  a  resolution  in  the  Dominion  parliament,  praying  the 
Queen  to  cause  an  Act  to  be  passed  amending  the  Act  of  Union, 
in  the  sense  understood  by  the  petitioners,  with  respect  to 
educational  matters.  Hereupon  the  Government  of  New 
Brunswick  sent  to  the  Privy  Council  an  emphatic  protest 
against  what  it  considered  the  threatened  infringement  of  the 
constitutional  right  of  the  province  to  legislate  on  all  educa- 
tional matters,  free  from  interference  from  the  Dominion  par- 
liament. Mr.  Chauveau's  motion  was  lost  by  a  vote  of  one 
hundred  and  twenty-six  to  thirty-four ;  but  a  motion  was  car- 
ried expressing  a  hope  that  the  public-school  law  of  New 
Brunswick  might  be  modified  so  as  to  remove  the  discontent  of 
a  portion  of  the  inhabitants.  To  this  motion  a  rider  "was 
appended,  referring  the  legal  aspects  of  the  question  to  the 
law  officers  of  the  crown.    These  officers  confirmed  the  decision 


TEE  MACiaSNZIE  ADMINISTRATION.  569 

of  the  Privy  Council,  in  which  oiDinion  they  were  corroborated 
by  the  judgment  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  New  Brunswick,  in 
a  case  of  appeal  against  the  compulsory  assessment  clause  in  the 
new  School  Act. 

In  the  general  election  of  1872,  the  New  Brunswick  School 
Act  was  iu  a  large  degree  a  test  question  at  the  polls.  In  the 
first  session  of  the  second  Dominion  parliament,  a  resolution 
was  carried  iu  favour  of  an  appeal  to  the  Privy  Council  of 
England  ;  and,  the  following  year,  after  the  change  of  Govern- 
ment, a  vote  of  $5,000  was  granted  to  defray  the  expenses  of 
the  appeal.  The  same  year,  the  people  of  New  Brunswick 
entered  their  vigorous  protest  against  the  interference  of  the 
Dominion  parliament  iu  matters  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
provincial  legislature.  The  elections  for  a  new  local  legislature 
turned  upon  this  question.  Out  of  forty-one  representatives, 
only  five  were  returned  in  the  interest  of  the  minority  in  favour 
of  a  separate  school  law. 

The  Attorney-General  of  the  province,  the  Hon.  J.  E.  King, 
proceeded  to  London  to  defend  the  acts  of  the  Government 
before  the  Privy  Council  of  England.  That  highest  court  in 
the  realm  dismissed  the  appeal,  and  sustained  the  constitution- 
ality of  the  New  Brunswick  school  law.  Much  exasperation 
was  felt  on  the  part  of  the  minority.  Several  persons  refused 
to  pay  the  obnoxious  school-tax,  except  under  pressure  of  dis- 
traint and  sale  of  goods.  In  1875,  as  already  mentioned,  a 
serious  riot  took  place  at  Caraquet,  Gloucester  County.  Some 
rate-payers  met  at  a  school-house  to  vote  money  for  school 
purposes.  A  party  of  French  hahitans  broke  up  the  meeting, 
and  took  possession  of  the  building.  In  endeavouring  to  sup- 
press the  riot,  one  of  the  ofiiccrs  of  the  law,  and  one  of  the 
rioters,  were  shot  dead,  and  the  militia  had  to  be  called  out  to 
restore  public  order.  During  the  session  of  1875,  the  Domin- 
ion parliament  consented,  by  a  large  majority,  to  an  address  to 
the  Queen,  praying  Pier  Majesty  to  use  her  influence  with  the 
legislatui-e  of  New  Brunswick  to  procure  such  a  modification  of 
the  School  Act  as  would  remove  any  just  ground  of  discontent 
to  any  portion  of  the  population. 
72 


570  HISTORY   OF  CAXADA. 

In  Prince  Edward  Island,  in  1875,  the  elections  for  the  local 
legislature  turned  almost  exclusively  upon  the  school  question. 
The  result  of  the  contest  was  the  return  of  a  large  majority  of 
the  candidates  in  favour  of  the  non-sectarian  as  opposed  to  the 
denominational  school  system.  The  Government  thereupon 
resigned,  and  was  succeeded  by  a  new  ministry  under  the 
premiership  of  the  Hon.  Louis  H.  Davies. 

The  third  session  of  the  Dominion  parliament  assembled  on 
1876.  the  10th  of  February,  and  continued  in  session  for  nine 
weeks.  The  actual  amount  of  legislation  was  not  great,  but 
some  important  measures  passed  the  House.  A  re-adjustment 
of  terms  was  made  by  the  Government  with  Manitoba,  by 
which  that  province  abolished  its  Upper  Chamber  or  Legisla- 
tive Council  of  seven  members,  and  received  an  annual  grant 
of  $90,000  for  governmental  expenses.  Provision  was  also 
made  for  the  separation  of  a  portion  of  the  North-west  Terri- 
tory for  administrative  purposes,  under  the  authority  of  a 
Lieutenant-Governor,  assisted  by  a  new  North-west  Council 
consisting  of  five  members.  To  this  office  the  Hon.  David 
Laird  of  Prince  Edward  Island,  who  had  previously  success- 
fully negotiated  the  Qu  'Appelle  treaty,  was  appointed.  * 
A  portion  of  the  territory  north  and  east  of  Manitoba  was 
erected  into  the  District  of  Kewatin, — the  "  North-land,"  — 
and  placed  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Lieutenant-Governor 
of  the  "prairie  province."  Provision  was  also  made  for  the 
ratifying  of  treaties  with  the  Indian  tribes,  and  for  the  encour- 
agement of  immigration  into  the  territory. 

In  consequence  of  the  continued  commercial  depression,  the 
subject  of  a  protective  or  revenue  tariff  had  been  warmly  dis- 
cussed during  the  recess.  These  discussions  were  renewed 
with  much  energy  in  the  House.  In  view  of  a  prospective  de- 
ficiency in  the  revenue,  it  was   anticipated  that  the  customs 

*  He  was  succeeded  as  Minister  of  the  Interior  by  the  Hon.  David  Mills,  and, 
later  in  the  year,  the  Hon.  Felix  Geoffrion  was  compelled  by  ill-health  to  relin- 
quish the  of3fice  of  Minister  of  Internal  Eevenue  to  the  Hon.  Toussaint  E. 
Laflamme.  The  Hon.  L.  Letellier  de  St.  Just,  toward  the  close  of  the  year,  was 
appointed  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Quebec.  He  was  succeeded  as  Minister  of 
Agriculture  by  the  Hon.  Charles  A.  P.  Pelletier. 


THE  MACKENZIE  ADMIXISTRATIOX.  571 

tariff  would  be  advanced,  thus  giving  a  further  incidental  pro- 
tection to  the  manufacturers.  Mr.  Cartwright's  budget,  how- 
ever, introduced  February  25th,  met  the  difficulty  by  a 
retrenchment  in  the  expenditure  to  the  amount  of  two  and  a 
half  millions.  The  fiscal  policy  of  the  Government  was  strongly 
attacked  on  several  occasions,  but  the  ministry  was  sustained 
by  large  majorities. 

The  provisions  of  the  "  Shipping  Bill"  of  the  Imperial  par- 
liament having  infringed  on  the  jDrerogative  of  Canada,  repre- 
sentations were  made  to  the  Home  Government  guarding  the 
rights  of  colonial  ship-owners,  and  leading  to  modifications 
which  made  the  bill  more  acceptable. 

During  the  early  part  of  the  summer  the  Intercolonial  Rail- 
way was  opened  for  travel  and  traffic.  The  magnificence  of  the 
scenery  through  which  it  passes  has  attracted  much  attention, 
and  the  increased  facilities  given  to  intercolonial  trade  cannot 
fail  to  strengthen  the  bonds  of  union  between  the  maritime  and 
western  provinces.  The  opening  of  the  road  considerably 
lessened  the  time  of  transit  of  European  mails  to  and  from  the 
West. 

The  public  works  of  the  Dominion  were  pressed  forward  with 
vigour,  and  a  very  large  amount  of  work  has  been  accomplished 
on  the  new  constructions  and  excavations  of  the  "Welland  and 
St.  Lawrence  canals.  Several  contracts  were  let  for  the  con- 
struction of  the  Canada  Pacific  Railway,  and  considerable 
progress  has  been  made  on  some  of  the  sections  of  this  gigantic 
project.  Large  quantities  of  steel  rails  were  purchased  and  laid 
down  at  convenient  depots  for  distribution  ;  but  the  commercial 
policy  of  the  Government  in  their  purchase  in  a  falling  market 
has  been  made  the  subject  of  severe  criticism.  Telegraphic 
and  postal  communication  along  the  projected  line  of  railway, 
and  in  the  newer  portions  of  the  Dominion,  has  been  much 
extended,  and  will  contribute  greatly  to  the  facilitation  of 
business. 

The  United  States  Centennial  Exhibition  at  Philadelphia 
attracted  large  numbers  of  Canadian  visitors.  The  position 
occupied  by  Canada  in  that  great  industrial  congress  of  the 


572  HISTORY  OF  CAXADA. 

nations,  was  in  the  highest  degree  creditable  to  the  skill  and 
energy  of  her  people,  and  was  to  multitudes  an  unexpected 
revelation  of  the  extent  and  magnificence  of  her  resources. 
Foremost  of  the  provinces  in  variety,  richness  and  beauty  of 
exhibits,  was  Ontario.  Its  educational  department  especially, 
with  one  exception  perhaps,  by  far  the  best  in  the  vast  palace 
of  industry,  challenged  universal  attention  and  admiration.  It 
is  just  ground  for  patriotic  pride,  that  in  this  highest  outcome 
of  civilization  our  country  takes  the  lead  of  the  world,  and  far 
surpasses  so  many  countries  much  older  and  much  richer  in 
material  wealth. 

The  mechanical  industries  and  manufactures  of  Canada  also 
commanded  wide  recognition,  and  in  some  cases  extensive 
patronage.  Among  the  foreign  patrons  were  Turkish  purchasers 
of  large  amounts  of  iron  manufactures,  notwithstanding  the 
domestic  convulsions  and  revolt  of  Christian  populations  in 
the  Ottoman  Empire. 

Increased  vigour  was  given  to  the  educational  administration 
of  Ontario,  by  the  appointment  of  a  minister  of  the  crown  to 
its  superintendence,  the  Hon.  Adam  Crooks  having,  early  in  the 
year,  accepted  the  office  of  Minister  of  Education,  in  connec- 
tion with  that  of  Provincial  Treasurer,  which  he  previously  held. 

In  the  month  of  August  their  Excellencies,  Lord  and  Lady 
Dufferin  and  suite,  made  a  visit  to  the  province  of  British  Co- 
lumbia by  way  of  the  American  Pacific  Eailway.  They  were 
received  with  demonstrations  of  loyal  enthusiasm  in  the  western- 
most province  of  the  Dominion,  and  were  impressed  with  the 
sublimity  of  its  scenery,  the  extent  and  importance  of  its  vast 
natural  resources,  and  the  magnificent  promise  of  its  future. 
Before  leaving  the  country  His  Excellancy  gave  an  admirable 
address  in  justification  of  policy  of  the  Canadian  Government 
with  reference  to  the  construction  of  the  Pacific  Railway.  For 
this  address,  which  was  most  happily  adapted  to  allay  the  irri- 
tation of  the  province  *  at  what  was  considered  the  violation  of 

*  Early  in  the  year  the  Government  of  British  Columbia  Tvas  defeated  on  a 
motion  of  disapproval  of  its  relations  to  the  Dominion  Government,  in  view  of 
the  default  of  Canada  to  fuMl  the  pledges  of  the  treaty  of  union,  and  a  new 
ministry  was  formed,  with  the  Hon.  A.  C.  Elliott  as  premier. 


THE  MACKENZIE  ADMINISTRATION. 


573 


pletlges  on  the  part  of  Canada,  Lord  DufFcnu  received  the 
thanks  of  the  Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colonics  of  Her  IMajce- 
ty's  Imperial  Government. 

The  development  of  the  business  of  the  country  mider  the 


stimulus  of  coufoderation,  led  to  the  necessity  of  greater  accom- 
modation for  its  transaction  in  the  great  commerci:il  centres. 
In  the  city  of  Montreal,  the  handsome  new  post-ofSce  shown  in 
the  euOTavino;  was  erected. 


574 


niSTORT  OF  CANADA. 


NEW  CUSTOM-HOUSE,  TORONTO. 


The  Bcink  of  Montreal,  also    shown  in  the   engraving,  is 

surpassed  in  elegance  of 
architecture,  and  in  finan- 
cial success,  by  few  bank- 
ing institutions  in  the 
world. 

The  rapid  commercial 
development  of  the  city 
of  Toronto  was  seen  in 
the  construction  of  large 
blocks  of  wholesale  stores, 
consequent  upon  the 
growth  of  the  railway 
system  of  the  province, 
and  the  extension  of  trade 
with  the  interior. 

To  accommodate  the  in- 
creasing business  of  the 
city,  the  large  and  handsome  new  custom-house  shown  in 
the  engraving  was  erected. 
It  is  a  noble  structure  of 
elaborately  carved  stone, 
and  would  challenge  admi- 
ration in  any  European 
capital.  It  is  elegantly 
ornamented  with  a  large 
number  of  well-executed 
medallion  busts  of  distin- 
guished navigators  and  ex- 
plorers. 

Greater  postal  facilities 
were  also  demanded  by  the 
growth  of  correspondence, 
consequent  on  the  exten- 
sion of  trade  and  increase 
of  population  ;  and,  by  the  post-office,  Toronto. 

remarkable  development  of  newspaper  and  other  periodical 


THE  MACKENZIE  ADMIN ISTRATIOX.  575 

publications.  These  facilities  were  furnished  by  the  new  post- 
office  building,  and  by  more  frequent  mail  service  and  free- 
letter  delivery. 

The  o-rowth  of  architectural  taste  in  the  cities  is  seen  in  the 


YOUNG  men's  CURISTIAN  ASSOCIATION  BUILDING,  MONTREAL. 

greatly  improved  character  of  their  public  buildings,  both 
ecclesiastical  and  civil.  Many  of  these  are  of  an  exceedingly 
elegant,  and,  indeed,  magnificent  style  of  architecture.  The 
city    of   Montreal    possesses    especial    pre-eminence   in    this 


HIST  OUT  OF  C AX  AD  A. 


respect,  —  the    stone    which    is   almost   exclusively  employed 
giving  its  churches,  banks,  and  other  public  buildings  a  noble 

and  stately  appearance.  The 
handsome  building  of  the 
Young  Men's  Christian  As- 
sociation, shown  in  the  ac- 
companying engraving,  may 
be  accepted  as  a  typical  ex- 
ample. 

The  railway  extension  of 
Northern  Ontario,  and  the 
opening  up  and  settlement 
of  new  townships  promoted 
thereby,  makes  the  city  of 
Toronto  the  great  commer- 
cial centre  and  shipjiing  port 


LMOX  STATION,  TOKONTO 

of  the  province.  The  tran- 
shipment of  grain,  lumber 
and  produce,  and  rafting 
of  timber,  largely  takes 
place  in  its  harbour.  To 
furnish  the  requisite  ac- 
commodation for  its  in- 
creasing passenger-traffic, 
the  Grand  Trunk  Railway 
Company  built  the  capa- 
cious and  elegant  Union 
Station  shown  in  the  en- 
graving, which  is  the  hand- 
somest and  most   commo- 


^ 


ST.   J.V_MES'   CATHEDRAi,  TORONTO. 


dious  structure  of  the  sort  in  the  Dominion. 


THE  MACKENZIE  ADMIMSTJiATIOX. 


Scarce  any  city  of  its  size  on  the  continent  will  compare 
with  Toronto  in  the  num- 
ber and  elegance  of  its 
churches.  Of  these  we 
give  a  few  examples.  St. 
James'  Cathedral  (Angli- 
can), was  erected  during 
the  episcopate  of  the  Rev. 
Dr.  Strachan,  and  is  a 
monument  of  his  uuth'ing 
zeal  and  energy.  It  is 
the  third  church  which 
has  occupied  the  site,  and 
is  one  of  the  most  elegaut 
specimens  of  Gothic  arch- 
itecture on  the  continent. 


METROPOLITAN  CHURCH,  TORONTO. 

Its  spire  is  the  tallest  in 
America,  being  three  hun- 
dred and  six  feet  high,  twen- 
ty-one feet  higher  than  that 
of     Trinity     Church,     New 

:  York. 

The  Metropolitan  Church 

'  (Methodist),  is  a  memorial 
of  the  residence  in  Canada 
of  the  Rev.  W.  Morley  Pun- 
shon,  LL.  D.,  by  whom  it 
was  projected.  The  com- 
manding eloquence,  the  re- 
markable administrative  abil- 
ity, and  the  intense  energy  of 


JAR\aS  ST.    BAPTIST   CHURCH,   TOKONTO, 

this  distinguished  divine  have  greatly  promoted  the  prosperity 

73 


578  BISTORT  OF  CANADA. 

of  the  church  with  which  he  was  connected.  Among  the  eccle- 
siastical movements  with  which  he  was  prominently  identified 
are  the  union  of  the  Wesleyan  and  New  Connection  Methodists, 
the  raisiLg  of  a  liberal  endowment  for  Victoria  University,  and 
the  establishment  of  a  Canadian  mission  in  Japan,  —  all  of 
which,  by  their  success,  have  signally  justified  the  wisdom  by 
which  they  were  projected. 

The  Jarvis  Street  Baptist  Church  is  one  of  the  most  elegant 
ecclesiastical  structures  in  the  Dominion.  It  possesses  an- 
advantage  over  both  of  the  others  mentioned,  in  the  more 
durable  material  of  which  it  is  built,  being  constructed  chiefly 
of  Queen ston  and  Ohio  stone.  There  are  also  several  new 
Presbyterian  churches,  of  great  beauty  of  design  and  costliness 
of  execution. 

"We  resume  now  our  chronological  record  of  recent  events. 

The  approach  of  the  new  year  found  the  business  of  the 
isrr.  country  disorganized  by  a  strike  of  the  engine-drivers 
of  the  Grand  Trunk  Railway,  directed,  it  was  alleged,  by  the 
Engineers'  Brotherhood  of  the  United  States.  The  mails  were 
delayed,  freight  and  passenger  traffic  interrupted,  and,  in  some 
cases,  wanton  injury  done  to  the  engines  by  the  strikers.  The 
intervention  of  the  volunteer  militia  had  to  be  invoked  before 
the  interruption  of  travel  ceased. 

The  Dominion  Parliament  met  on  the  8th  of  February,  and 
continued  in  session  till  the  28th  of  April.  A  deficit  in  the 
revenue  was  announced,  amounting  to  nearly  two  million  dol- 
lars. The  debates  were  characterized  by  a  good  deal  of 
asperity.  The  Opposition  proposed,  as  censures  upon  the 
administration,  a  series  of  amendments  to  the  motion  to  go 
into  committee  of  supply  ;  but  the  Government  was  sustained 
by  large  majorities.  The  continued  commercial  and  manu- 
facturing depression  caused  the  chief  interest  to  centre  around 
the  debate  on  the  question  of  a  protective  or  revenue  tariff  and 
free  trade.  It  was  Lcre  that  the  most  strenuous  conflict  of  the 
session  took  place.  Sir  John  A.  Macdonald  moved  a  resolution 
expressing  regret  that  the  financial  policy  of  the  Government 
increased  the  burthen  of  taxation,  without  compensating  advan- 


THE  MACKENZIE  ADMINISTRATION.  579 

tages  to  Canadian  industries,  and  urging  such  a  re-adjustment  of 
tariff  as  would  benefit  and  foster  the  agricultural,  manufactur- 
ing, and  mining  interests  of  the  Dominion.  After  a  protracted 
debate,  however,  the  motion  was  defeated  by  a  majority  of 
forty-uine.  The  chief  legislation  of  the  session  was  the  consti- 
tution of  a  new  court  of  maritime  jurisdiction,  a  comprehensive 
extradition  Act,  an  amended  insurance  Act,  and  numerous 
amendments  to  the  criminal  law.*  During  the  recess,  politi- 
cal ' '  picnics  "  were  held  throughout  the  country  in  the  interest 
of  both  parties,  and  were  addressed  by  leading  Ministerial  and 
Ojpposition  speakers. 

In  the  province  of  Ontario,  the  important  work  of  consoli- 
dating the  statutes  was  brought  to  a  close.  The  Hon.  Adam 
Crooks  finding  the  duties  of  Minister  of  Education  engross  his 
energies,  resigned  the  Treasurership,  and  was  succeeded  by  the 
Hon.  S.  C.  Wood,  Provincial  Secretary.  Mr.  Hardy,  M.  P. 
for  South  Brant,  took  the  vacant  portfolio  of  Mr.  "Wood,  thus 
giving  an  additional  member  to  the  cabinet. 

Unusual  activity  was  manifested  in  the  temperance  cause. 
A  vigorous  agitation  in  favour  of  the  Dunkin  Act  by-laws, 
resulted  in  their  being  carried  in  thirteen  municipalities  in 
Ontario  and  Quebec,  and  in  their  defeat  in  seven  others.  A 
great  moral  education  on  the  subject  of  temperance  was  the 
result  of  the  discussions  on  the  platform  and  in  public  jour- 
nals, and   an   organized  temperance   movement   obtained   the 

*  In  the  Dominion  Cabinet  several  changes  took  place.  The  state  of  the  Hon. 
Edward  Blake's  health  rendering  his  relief  from  departmental  duties  necessary, 
he  relinquished  the  portfolio  of  Minister  of  Justice,  to  become  President  of  the 
Council,  in  the  place  of  the  Hon.  Joseph  E.  Cauchon.  That  gentleman  became 
Minister  of  Internal  Revenue,  vice  the  Hon.  T.  R.  Laflamme,  who  succeeded 
Mr.  Blake  as  Minister  of  Justice.  On  the  expiration  of  the  term  of  office  of  the 
Hon.  Alexander  Morris,  as  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Manitoba,  he  was  succeeded 
by  the  Hon.  Joseph  E.  Cauchon,  whose  vacant  portfolio  was  taken  by  the  Hon. 
Wilfrid  Laurier.  The  new  "minister  was  defeated  in  Drummond  and  Artha- 
baska,  but  was  elected  by  a  large  majority  in  Quebec  East.  The  Committee  of 
Privileges  and  Elections  reported  the  seat  of  the  Hon.  T.  W.  Auglin,  Speaker 
of  the  House  of  Commons,  vacant  in  consequence  of  a  violation  of  the  Independ- 
ence of  Parliament  Act,  through  his  interest  in  an  office  in  which  Government 
printing  was  done.  The  report  was  received  too  late  for  adoption ;  but  Mr. 
Anglin  resigned,  and  was  re-elected. 


580  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

signatures  of  many  thousands  of  persons  to  a  total-abstinence 
pledge. 

During  the  summer,  their  Excellencies  the  Earl  and  Countess 
of  Dufferin  visited  the  province  of  Manitoba.  The  admirable 
addresses  of  Lord  Dufferin  at  A7inuepeg„and  in  the  Icelanders' 
settlement,  captivated  the  hearts  of  his  hearers,  and  eloquently 
dejDicted  the  almost  boundless  extent  and  immense  resources  of 
the  Dominion  of  Canada.  Large  shipments  of  prairie-wheat 
from  the  "  garden  province,"  were  an  earnest  of  its  vast  future 
contributions  to  the  food-supply  of  the  world.  The  population 
of  the  i^rovince  has  also  largely  increased,  by  an  intelligent 
Canadian  and  foreign  immigration. 

Notwithstanding  the  continued  depression  in  trade,  indi- 
cations were  not  wanting  of  the  progress  of  the  country. 
The  very  creditable  display  of  Canadian  goods  at  the  Sydney 
Exhibition  gave  promise  of  a  remunerative  trade  with  the 
Antipodes.  A  rapid  development  has  taken  place  in  the 
exportation  to  Great  Britain  of  Canadian  meat,  live-stock,  and 
dairy  produce, — a  trade  which  is  capable  of  indefinite  expan- 
sion. The  traffic  on  our  great  railways  also  exhibits  a  marked 
increase. 

An  active  effort  is  taking  place,  with  promise  of  success,  to 
make  Halifax,  with  its  unrivalled  harbour,  a  winter  grain-port. 
Considerable  progress  has  also  been  made  in  the  surveys  and 
construction  of  the  Pacific  Railway. 

A  great  calamity,  in  the  month  of  June,  befell  the  province 
of  New  Brunswick,  in  the  destruction,  by  fire,  on  the  20th  of 
June,  of  a  large  part  of  its  flourishing  seaport,  St.  John.  Two- 
fifths  of  the  city,  or  over  sixteen  hundred  houses,  occupying 
two  hundred  acres  of  ground,  were  consumed.  The  burnt 
district  comprised  the  most  important  part  of  the  city,  —  the 
great  wholesale  houses,  banks,  hotels,  new  post-office  and  cus- 
tom-house, its  best  churches  and  finest  private  buildings.  The 
fire  was  far  more  disastrous,  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the 
city,  than  that  of  either  Chicago  or  Boston.  A  spontaneous 
outburst  of  sympathy,  and  proffers  of  help  from  all  parts  of  the 
Dominion,  from  Great  Britain,  and   from  the  United  States, 


BOSTON,  B.B.RUSSELL 


vorr  eteai 


tims  of  this  clis- 
f   -St.   John 


ire,  or  -who  ,■ 
Th^  Hon.  .> 

*  boru  ut  . 

,    IdSO,  an<J 


Hon.  Ed-ivard  B.  i 
for  sixteen  years.  ' 
SVLVnSTEl'   •. 
n  1323.     Hi 


LUMiiber  of  the  r'll 
:;  11,  to  the  office  of  la 
Jonx  Boro,  Esq.,  also  .1 


682 


HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 


THE  MACKENZIE  ADMINISTRATION.  583 

One  of  the  most  notable  events  of  the  year  1877,  was  the 
meeting  of  the  Fishery  Commission  at  Halifax.  At  the  expira- 
tion of  the  reciprocity  treaty  the  Americans  were  notified  that 
their  fishing  privileges  in  Canadian  waters  had  ceased.  Yield- 
ing to  the  wishes  of  the  Imperial  Government,  however, 
the  IMinister  of  Marine  and  Fisheries,  Hon.  Peter  Mitchell, 
adopted  a  system  of  fishing  licenses.  In  1866,  four  hundred 
and  fifty-four  licenses  were  issued.  But  the  American  fisher- 
men ignored  the  rights  of  Canada,  and,  in  1869,  only  twenty- 
nine  licenses  were  taken  out.  In  1870,  a  police  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  fisheries  was  organized,  and  the  following  year 

the  most  active  and  public-spirited  citizens  of  St.  John,  and  few  men,  if  any, 
in  the  province,  Tvield  a  wider  and  more  beneficent  influence.  Mr.  Boyd  is  a 
native  of  the  North  of  Ireland,  of  sturdy  Scottish  Presbyterian  stock.  The  old- 
established  firm  of  Daniel  &  Boyd  has  been  for  forty  years  the  synonym  for 
honour,  uprightness,  and  truth.  Its  partners  have  been  foremost  in  every  good 
work  and  deed  of  charity,  and  many  of  the  leading  merchants  of  the  province 
have  received  their  business  training  as  employes  of  the  house.  Mr.  Boyd  is 
an  accomplished  writer  for  the  press,  and  has  won  a  wide  popularity  for  the 
blended  wit  and  wisdom  of  his  public  lectures.  His  great  talents  in  this 
respect  he  most  generously  employs  for  philanthropic  purposes,  having  raised 
by  this  means  for  public  and  private  charities,  nearly  thirty  thousand  dollars, 
besides  giving  large  personal  contributions.  As  president  of  the  St.  John 
school-board,  —  one  of  the  most  important  trusts  of  the  city,  —  his  wise  coun- 
sels, liberal  views,  and  conciliatory  manners,  contributed  largely  to  the  settle- 
ment of  the  disputes  on  educational  matters  between  the  Protestant  and 
Roman  Catholic  citizens.  He  was  a  heavy  loser  by  the  fire,  but  was  one  of  the 
most  active  in  alleviating  the  losses  of  others. 

Alexander  Gibson,  Esq.,  the  "  lumber  king"  of  New  Brunswick,  is  of  Irish 
descent ;  but  was  born  at  St.  Andrews,  N.  B.,  in  1819.  He  began  his  remarkable 
business  career  as  a  poor  boy,  working  with  his  hands  in  a  saw-mill.  His 
energy  and  enterprise  led  to  his  becoming,  first  a  partner,  then  sole  owner  of  a 
saw-mill  at  Leprean,  N.  B.  The  earnings  of  ten  years  enabled  him,  in  1864,  to 
purchase  the  mill-property  at  Marysville,  on  the  Nashwaak,  near  its  junction 
with  the  St.  John  at  Fredericton.  This  business  has  grown  till  it  gives  em- 
ployment during  the  winter  season  to  not  less  than  eight  hundred  men.  Mr. 
Gibson's  shipments  of  lumber  from  St.  John  have  reached  as  high  as  a  hundred 
and  thirty  million  feet  in  a  year.  He  is  also  one  of  the  largest  owners  of  tim- 
ber-lands in  the  province.  The  New  Brunswick  Railway,  of  which  he  has 
been  president  from  its  inception,  is  designed  to  extend  from  Gibson,  opposite 
Fredericton,  to  Riviere  du  Loup.  It  has  been  built  thus  far  by  capital  supplied 
principally  by  Mr.  Gibson.  He  has  also  erected  at  a  cost  of  $60,000,  a  singu- 
larly beautiful  church  of  octagonal  design,  which  he  has  presented  aa  a  free 
gift  to  the  Methodist  body. 


584  BISTORT  OF  CANADA. 

the  whole  matter  was  referred  to  the  high  joint  commission  at 
Washington.  The  Treaty  of  Washington  threw  open  the 
fisheries  of  each  country  to  the  other  for  the  term  of  twelve 
years,  the  amount  of  compensation  for  the  alleged  superior 
value  of  the  Canadian  fisheries  to  be  decided  by  three  commis- 
sioners,—  one  chosen  by  each  Government,  and  a  third  by  the 
two  Governments  jointly.  Through  various  delays  it  was  not 
till  June,  1877,  that  this  commission  met  at  Halifax,  N.  S. 
It  consisted  of  Sir  A.  T.  Gait  for  Great  Britain,  the  Hon.  E. 
H.  Kellogg  for  the  United  States,  and  His  Excellency  M.  Del- 
fosse,  Belgian  Minister  at  Washington.  The  amount  claimed 
by  Canada,  was  $14,880,000.  After  exhaustive  examination 
of  documentary  and  oral  evidence,  the  sum  of  $5,500,000  was 
awarded  to  be  paid  within  twelve  months  by  the  United  States. 
The  Hon.  E.  H.  Kellogg  dissented  from  the  award,  and 
expressed  a  doubt  whether  one  could  be  given  without  the 
unanimous  consent  of  the  entire  commission.  A  good  deal  of 
feeling  against  the  award  has  been  manifested  in  the  United 
States,  but  there  is  no  ground  for  apprehending  its  repudia- 
tion. 

By  this  award  the  immense  value  of  these  fisheries  has  been 
recognised,  and  Canada  retains  the  right  to  regulate  the  traffic 
in  bait  and  supplies  of  the  American  fisherman,  and  the  right  to 
prohibit,  at  the  close  of  the  treaty  period,  all  fishing  within 
three  miles  from  shore. 

On  the  7th  of  February,  the  last  session  of  the  third  parlia- 
1878.  ment  of  the  Dominion  began.  *  The  speech  from  the 
throne  was  largely  retrospective  in  character,  a  natural  result 
of  the  approaching  close  of  Lord  Dufierin's  period  of  admin- 
istration. The  debate  on  the  address,  in  both  the  Senate  and 
the  House  of  Commons  was   animated,  discursive,  and  pro- 

*  The  Hon.  T.  W.  Anglin,  the  Speaker,  having  resigned  his  seat,  was  again 
returned  during  recess.  It  is  a  point  of  etiquette  for  new  members  to  he  pre- 
sented to  the  Speaker.  Six  John  A.  Macdonald,  therefore,  objected  to  the 
nomination  of  Mr  Anglin  as  Speaker,  on  the  technical  ground  that  he  was  not 
a  full  member  of  the  House  This  objection,  however,  was  overruled,  and  he 
was  re-elected  to  that  office.  During  the  recess,  the  Hon.  Alfred  Jones,  Hali- 
fax, entered  the  Cabinet  as  Minister  of  Militia. 


THE  MACKENZIE  ADMINISTRATION.  585 

longed.  The  approach  of  the  general  elections  seemed  to  have 
stimulated  party  feeling  to  unusual  vigour,  not  to  say  acrimony. 
On  the  22d  of  February,  Mr.  Cartwright  submitted  the  budget 
without  recommending  any  changes  of  tariff.  In  the  animated 
debate  which  followed,  Sir  John  A.  Macdonald  moved  an 
amendment  in  favour  of  a  "  national  policy,  which,  by  a  judi- 
cious re-adjustment  of  tariff,  would  benefit  and  foster  the  agri- 
cultural, mining,  manufacturing,  and  other  interests  of  the 
Dominion."  The  amendment,  however,  was  defeated  by  a  vote 
of  one  hundred  and  fourteen  to  seventy-seven. 

The  dismissal  of  the  De  Boucherville  ministry  by  Lieutenant- 
Governor  Letellier  De  St.  Just  of  Quebec,  was  the  occasion  of 
much  animated  discussion,  not  only  in  that  province,  but 
throughout  the  Dominion.  It  was  in  turn  denounced  as  a 
violent  coup  (Tetat^  and  defended  as  the  exercise  of  a  constitu- 
tional right.  In  the  Dominion  parliament.  Sir  John  A.  Mac- 
donald introduced  a  resolution  of  censure  of  the  dismissal  as 
*'  unwise,  and  subversive  of  the  position  accorded  to  the 
advisers  of  the  crown  since  the  concession  of  the  principle 
of  responsible  government  to  the  British  North  American 
colonies."  In  a  vigorous  speech,  he  reviewed  the  constitu- 
tional points  of  the  question ;  but,  on  division,  was  defeated 
by  a  vote  of  one  hundred  and  twelve  to  seventy.  A  continued 
sitting  of  the  House,  for  twenty-seven  hours,  caused  by  an 
effort  of  the  Opposition  to  procure  an  adjournment  of  the 
debate,  to  which  the  Government  would  not  accede,  was  the 
occasion  of  much  noisy  and  unparliamentary  interruption  of 
discussion. 

The  principal  legislative  results  of  the  session  were  the 
following :  the  Scott  Temperance  Act  for  the  purpose  of 
enabling  municipalities  to  prohibit,  by  popular  vote,  the  sale  of 
liquor  within  their  limits  ;  a  bill  for  winding  up  insolvent  fire 
and  marine  insurance  companies  ;  a  bill  against  carrying  deadly 
weapons  within  proclaimed  districts ;  and  a  new  election  bill, 
which  provides,  among  other  things,  for  making  the  identifica- 
tion of  ballots  impossible.  The  Government  bill  to  abolish 
the  Eeceiver-General's  office,  and  to  appoint  a  second  law-offi- 
74 


586  msTORT  OF  Canada. 

cer  who  should  be  a  memljer  of  the  cabinet  and  Attorney- 
General,  was  carried  in  the  Commons  by  a  large  majority,  but 
was  defeated  in  the  Senate.  That  body  manifested  much  inde- 
pendence in  its  adverse  criticism  of  Government  measures, 
and  especially  of  the  Pacific  Railway  policy.  An  unfortunate 
contretemps,  arising  from  question  of  privilege,  raised  by  the 
Hon.  Donald  A.  Smith  of  Selkirk,  gave  the  close  of  the  session 
a  tumultuous  and  unparliamentary  character.  A  more  agreeable 
incident  was  the  presentation  of  a  complimentary  address  to 
Lord  Dufi'erin,  in  view  of  the  approaching  close  of  his  popular 
administration.  * 

The  session  of  the  Ontario  legislature  was  comparatively 
uneventful,  although  a  large  number  of  useful  bills  became 
law.  Among  these  were :  Acts  establishing  a  new  maritime 
court ;  providing  for  the  employment  of  prison  labour  outside 
of  gaol  walls  ;  providing  for  the  issue  of  Government  loans  for 
draining  purposes ;  a  joint-stock  companies  Act ;  a  civil  ser- 
vice Act,  and  a  great  many  private  bills.  The  province 
shared  in  the  prevailing  commercial  depression  ;  but,  notwith- 
standing the  great  expenditure  on  capital  account,  there  was 
still  a  very  large  surplus  in  the  provincial  treasury. 

In  the  province  of  Quebec,  as  we  have  already  mentioned, 
the  chief  event  of  the  year  was  the  dismissal  of  his  ministers 
by  the  Lieutenant-Governor.  In  justification  of  this  act,  it 
was  alleged  that  the  ministry,  although  sustained  by  a  majority 
of  both  chambers  of  the  legislature,  had,  without  the  authority 
of  the  Lieutenant-Governor,  published  in  his  name  documents 
and  proclamations  which  he  had  not  signed ;  presented  mes- 
sages to  the  House,  respecting  which  he  had  not  been  consulted ; 

*  In  the  month  of  May,  some  little  excitement  "was  created  by  another  Fenian 
alarm.  The  militia  department  promptly  prepared  for  emergencies.  Arms 
and  ammunition  were  served  out  to  tfle  volunteers  on  the  frontier,  and  new 
batteries  were  created  at  Yarmouth,  Digby,  St.  John,  and  Victoria,  B.  C,  as  a 
precaution  against  Russian  or  Fenian  attack;  but,  happily,  no  occasion  for 
their  use  occurred.  In  this  month,  also,  took  place  the  sudden  death  of  the 
Hon.  Allan  Wilmot,  ex-Governor  of  New  Brunswick,  —  a  statesman  of  rare 
ability,  whose  loss  will  be  severely  felt,  not  only  by  his  own  province,  but  by 
the  entire  Dominion. 


THE  MACKENZIE  ADMINISTRATION.  587 

and  introduced  oppressive  financial  legislation  against  his 
advice.  *  Much  popular  discontent  was  manifested  at  the 
Government  policy  in  the  construction  of  the  north  shore  rail- 
way, which  was  considered  more  lavish  than  the  financial  state 
of  the  country  would  justify  ;  and  several  bonuses  voted  for  the 
road  had  been  repudiated  on  account  of  the  alleged  violation  of 
the  conditions  on  which  they  had  been  granted.  The  legisla- 
tion to  which  exception  was  taken  provided  for  the  payment  of 
these  bonuses  by  a  direct  tax  levied  on  the  people,  to  be  col- 
lected, if  necessary,  by  distraint  and  sale  of  their  goods  and 
chattels.  The  jurisdiction  of  the  courts  in  the  matter  was  set 
aside,  and  the  decisions  of  the  Executive  were  final,  and,  the 
Lieutenant-Governor  affirmed,  arbitrary  and  oppressive.  A 
Stamp  Act  was  also  passed,  without  the  Lieutenant-Governor's 
authority  or  consent,  which  taxed  almost  all  business  contracts. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  was  claimed  that  the  Lieutenant-Gov- 
ernor, by  giving  signatures  in  blank,  and  permission  by  tele- 
gram to  introduce  the  financial  resolutions,  had  virtually  given 
his  consent  thereto  ;  and  that,  if  he  disapproved  the  legislation 
of  the  House,  he  had  the  power  to  prevent  its  taking  efiect. 
He  was,  moreover,  accused  of  political  animus  in  refusing  his 
assent  to  certain  appointments  made  by  his  ministers,  and  in 
the  final  dismissal  of  the  cabinet,  and  appointment  of  their 
successors. 

The  Hon.  Henri  Gustavo  Joly  was  called  upon  to  form  a 
cabinet,  which  he  soon  succeeded  in  doing,  f  The  new  min- 
istry was  met  by  a  vote  of  want  of  confidence,  and  promptly 
dissolved  the  House  and  appealed  to  the  country.  The  elec- 
tion contest  was  very  keen  and  close.     The  new  parliament 

*  See  communication  from  the  Lieutenant-Governor  to  the  Governor-Gen- 
eral, laid  before  the  Quebec  Legislature,  March  26,  1878.  Under  nine  sub-sec- 
tions, the  grievances  of  the  Lieutenant-Governor  against  his  ministers,  are  set 
forth. 

t  It  was  constituted  as  follows :  Hon.  H.  G.  Joly,  Premier  and  Minister  of 
Public  Works ;  Hon.  D.  A.  Ross,  Attorney-General ;  Hon.  Pierre  Bachand, 
Treasurer ;  Hon.  F.  C.  S.  Langlier,  Commissiouer  of  Crown  Lands ;  Hon.  A. 
Chauveau,  Solicitor-General;  Hon.  F.  G.  Marchaud,  Provincial  Secretary, 
and  Hon.  H.  Stames,  President  of  the  Council. 


588  HISTORY  OF  CAXADA. 

met,  June  4,  amid  a  scene  of  intense  excitement, — the  ap- 
proaches to  the  House,  and  every  standing  place  within,  being 
densely  crowded  with  eager  spectators.  The  Government 
was  able  to  secure  the  election  of  Mr.  A.  Turcotte,  a  Con- 
servative, its  candidate  for  Speaker,  by  a  vote  of  thirty- 
three  to  thirty-two.  That  gentleman  was  bitterly  assailed  for 
alleged  violation  of  pledges,  but  he  avowed  his  intention  of 
giving  the  Government  an  independent  support.  The  House 
continued  in  session  till  the  20th  of  July,  and  the  Government 
was  sustained  in  almost  every  division  by  the  casting  vote  of 
the  Speaker.  Its  general  policy  was  one  of  financial  retrench- 
ment. An  attempt  to  abolish  the  Legislative  Council  failed, 
and,  just  at  the  close  of  the  session,  an  Act  was  passed  for 
the  prevention  of  party  processions,  a  subject  which  was  the 
occasion  of  intense  excitement  throughout  the  country. 

In  the  city  of  Montreal,  the  antagonism  between  the  Orange 
and  Roman  Catholic  parties  had  risen  to  an  alarming  height. 
On  the  12th  of  July,  1877,  although  the  Orangemen  had 
relinquished  their  purpose  of  walking  in  procession,  as  a  num- 
ber of  them  were  returning  from  church,  they  were  assailed  by 
a  mob,  and  one  of  them,  T.  Lett  Hackett,  was  shot  dead  in  the 
street.  Four  days  later,  he  received  a  public  funeral,  a  strong 
force  of  troops  being  under  arms  for  its  protection.  During 
the  year  that  followed,  frequent  collisions  took  place  between 
the  rival  parties,  in  which  blood  was  shed,  and  very  bitter  feel- 
ing engendered.  The  Orangemen  avowed  their  intention  of 
walking  in  procession  to  church  on  the  12th  of  July,  1878. 
Apprehending  a  breach  of  the  peace,  six  magistrates  of  the 
city  made  a  request  for  military  aid  to  suppress  any  disturb- 
ance. Three  thousand  troops  were  held  under  arms,  under  the 
command  of  Major-General  Selby  Smith.  Mr.  Beaudry,  the 
mayor  of  the  city,  however,  under  authority  of  an  obsolete 
statute  for  the  suppression  of  illegal  and  seditious  associations, 
swore  in  five  hundred  special  constables,  —  many  of  whom,  it 
was  alleged,  w^ere  violent  anti-Orange  partisans,  — for  the  pur- 
pose of  preventing  the  procession.  Several  of  the  leaders  of 
the  Orange  party  were  arrested,  and  subsequently  arraigned  in 


THE  MACKENZIE  ADMINISTRATION.  5S9 

a  civil  court  on  the  charge  of  belonging  to  an  illegal  organi- 
zation. The  Orangemen  submitted,  under  protest,  to  this 
exhibition  of  force,  and  no  i:)rocession  took  j)lacc.  Intense 
irritation  was  felt  at  the  interference  with  what  was  claimed  as 
the  exercise  of  a  constitutional  right.  A  serious  collision  sub- 
sequently took  place,  August  12,  at  Ottawa,  between  members 
of  the  antagonistic  parties.  Labour  riots  at  Montreal  and 
Quebec,  during  the  year,  also  occasioned  much  disturbance. 

On  the  1st  of  August,  a  commission  of  arbitrators  between 
the  Dominion,  and  the  province  of  Ontario,  as  to  the  northern 
boundary  of  the  province,  met  at  Ottawa.  The  commissioners 
were  Sir  Edward  Thornton,  Chief  Justice  Harrison,  and  Sir 
Francis  Hincks.  After  hearing  counsel  in  the  interests  of  both 
Governments,  the  northern  boundary  of  Ontario  was  defined 
as  being  the  southern  shore  of  Hudson's  Bay,  the  Albany 
Eiver,  St.  Joseph  and  Lonely  Lakes,  and  English  Eiver,  to  a 
i:)oint  due  north  of  the  north-west  angle  of  Lake  of  the 
Woods  ;  thence  south  to  the  American  boundary. 

Extreme  regret  was  felt  throughout  the  country  at  the 
approaching  departure  of  the  Governor-General  and  his 
esteemed  consort.  They  had  won  all  hearts  by  the  winning 
courtesy  of  their  manners,  and  left  pleasant  recollections  of 
their  visits  to  every  part  of  the  Dominion,  from  the  sea-girt 
peninsula  of  Nova  Scotia  to  the  Pacific  province  of  British 
Columbia.  Lord  Dufierin  had  demonstrated  the  qualities  of  a 
wise  constitutional  Governor.  In  his  public  addresses  he 
exhibited  the  wide  vision  and  clear  insight  of  a  statesman, 
combined  with  the  eloquence,  the  wit,  and  the  brilliant  fancy 
of  the  poet  and  the  orator. 

The  regret  which  was  experienced  at  the  departure  of  the 
Earl  and  Countess  of  Dufierin,  was  accompanied  by  a  feeling 
of  gratification  that  they  were  to  be  succeeded  in  their  high 
place  by  the  Marquis  of  Lome,  and  the  Princess  Louise.  It 
was  felt  to  be  a  pledge  of  the  deep  interest  felt  by  Her  Majesty 
the  Queen,  in  the  Dominion,  that  she  chose  to  be  represented 
among  her  Canadian  subjects,  in  the  person  of  her  daughter 
and   of  her   son-in-law.     The   domestic  virtues   and   amiable 


590 


HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 


THB  MAKQUIS  OF  LORNE. 


character  of  the  Princess,  and  the  cultured  taste  and  states- 
manly   ability   of  the   Marquis   will   command   the   love   and 

admiration  of  all  Canadian 
hearts,  and  will  knit  them  still 
more  firmly  to  the  throne. 
The  Marquis  of  Lome  is  de- 
scended from  one  of  the  oldest 
Scottish  families,  as  well  as  one 
of  the  foremost  in  rank  and  in 
historic  interest.  Nine  dukes 
and  ten  earls  of  Argyle  lead 
us  back  to  1457,  when  the  lat- 
ter title  was  created.  In  this 
august  lineage  were  some  of  the 
greatest  statesmen  and  high 
officers  of  the  Scottish  and  Eng- 
lish crowns,  including  one  mar- 
tyr for  the  Covenant.  The 
present  duke  is  also  a  distinguished  philosopher  and  author. 
The  Marquis  of  Lome  was  born  in  1845,  and  married,  in  1871, 
the  Princess  Louise,  the  fourth  daughter  of  Her  Majesty  the 
Queen,  —  this  being  the  first  instance  of  the  marriage  of  the 
daughter  of  a  reigning  sovereign  of  England  to  a  subject.  He 
was  educated  at  Eton,  St.  Andrew's,  and  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge.  In  1868,  he  was  returned  to  the  House  of  Com- 
mons for  Argyleshire.  In  1866,  the  Marquis  made  a  tour 
through  Hayti,  Cuba,  Jamaica,  the  United  States,  and  Canada. 
He  is  the  author  of  several  volumes  of  superior  merit,  in  prose 
and  verse. 

Her  Majesty  the  Queen,  has  also  manifested  her  sympathy 
with  our  country  by  a  generous  contribution  towards  the  con- 
struction of  the  "Kent  Gate,"  in  the  proposed  Duflferin  im- 
provements at  Quebec,  —  a  worthy  commemoration  of  her 
father,  the  Duke  of  Kent,  commander  of  the  forces  in  that  city 
in  1794.  These  improvements,  when  completed,  will  be  a 
lasting  memorial  of  our  generous-hearted  Governor-General, 
by  whom  they  were  projected. 


THE  MACKEXZIE  ADMIN ISTRATIOy.  59I 

The  loyalty  of  Canadians  to  the  person  and  crown  of  their 
sovereign,  was  shown  in  their  spontaneous  offer  to  raise  a 
brigade  for  foreign  service  when  it  seemed  as  if  the  vexed 
*'  Eastern  Question"  would  involve  the  mother  country  in  war 
with  Eussia ;  and  nowhere  in  the  Empire  was  there  more 
patriotic  joy  and  pride  at  the  triumphant  manner  in  which 
Her  Majesty's  ministers  returned  from  the  Berlin  Congress, 
bringing  '*  peace  with  honour,"  and  increased  glory  to  the 
British  name. 

On  the  17th  of  August,  a  special  issue  of  the  "  Canada 
Gazette  "  contained  a  proclamation  ordering  the  dissolution  of 
the  Dominion  parliament.  The  nominations  were  appointed 
to  take  place  on  the  10th  of  September,  and  the  polling  on  the 
17th,  except  in  Manitoba,  where  the  nominations  were  to  tak6 
place  on  the  19th. 

Great  political  activity  was  manifested  during  the  summer, 
which  became  intensified  as  the  time  of  the  general  election 
approached.  In  the  public  journals,  and  on  the  hustings,  the 
merits  of  a  revenue  as  compared  with  a  protective  tariff — which 
were  popularly  accepted  as  representing  the  policy  respectively 
of  the  Ministerial  and  Opposition  parties  —  were  warmly  dis- 
cussed. As  these  pages  pass  through  the  press,  the  electors 
are  called  upon  to  assert  their  prerogative  of  self-government, 
through  their  freely-chosen  representatives  to  the  Commons 
House  of  the  Dominion  parliament. 


692 


HISTORY  OF  CANADA. j 


CHAPTER   L. 

THE  PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION  IN  CANADA. 


TINIVERSITY  OF  TORONTO. 

Quebec. — Seminary  of  St.  Sulpice,  Montreal,  1647  —  S6minaire  de  Quebec, 
1663  —  Fabrique  Act,  1624  —  School  Legislation  after  the  Union  —  Higher 
Education. 

Ontario. — Early  School  Legislation  —  Dr.  Ryerson  —  Organization  of  Public- 
School  System  —  Higher  Education. 

Nova  Scotia. — Elementary  and  Higher  Education. 

New  Brunsavick. — Elementary  and  Higher  Education. 

Progress  of  Education  in  Prince  Edward  Island,  Manitoba,  and  British 
Columbia. 

NO  factor  in  national  prosperity  is  more  important  than  that 
of  the  education  of  the  people.  This  subject  may, 
therefore,  claim  succinct  treatment  in  a  separate  chapter.  We 
will  begm  our  review  with  the  oldest  province  of  the  Domin- 
ion, Quebec.  A  prominent  purpose  of  early  French  coloniza- 
tion was  the  conversion  of  the  Indian  tribes.  The  Eecollet 
and  Jesuit  Fathers,  and  Ursuline  Nuns,  therefore,    devoted 


THE  PROGRESS   OF  EDUCATION  IX  CAyADA.  593 

themselves  with  assiduity  to  the  religious  and  secular  instruc- 
tion of  the  native  youth,  as  well  as  to  those  of  French  parent- 
age. As  early  as  1632,  Pere  Le  Jeune  began  his  educational 
work  at  Quebec  with  two  pupils,  —  an  Indian  and  a  negro. 
Humble  as  were  his  labours,  he  vt^ould  not  exchange  them,  he 
said,  for  those  of  a  professor  in  the  first  university  of  Europe. 
In  1G39,  Madame  de  la  Peltrie  and  Marie  Guyart  founded  the 
Ursuline  Convent  at  Quebec,  They  were  soon  surrounded  by 
a  multitude  of  Indian  children  to  whom  they  taught  the  hymns 
and  prayers  of  the  Church. 

In  1647,  the  Seminary  of  St.  Sulpice  was  founded  in  Mon- 
treal, and,  in  1663,  the  "Grande  S^minaire  de  Quebec,"  by 
Mgr.  Laval.  Both  of  these  were  designed  for  the  education  of 
candidates  for  the  priesthood.  The  "Petit  S6minaire"  was 
established  at  the  suggestion  of  Colbert,  in  1668,  for  the  train- 
ing of  Huron  lads.  It  failed  to  accomplish  this  jDurpose,  but,  in 
1688,  we  find  sixty  French  youths  in  attendance.  The  Jesuit 
College  at  Montreal  was  established  in  1728,  and,  nine  years 
later,  the  "  Freres  Chretiens  "  became  the  teachers  of  a  number 
of  elementary  schools  in  several  parishes,  assuming  a  distinctive 
garb  as  such.  After  the  conquest,  the  "College  de  IMontreal" 
was  established  by  the  Sulpicians,  in  1773.  The  Jesuit  Order 
was  suppressed  in  Canada  in  1774,  and,  in  1789,  a  committee 
of  the  legislature  recommended  the  establishment  of  elementary 
parish  schools,  with  a  provincial  college  at  Quebec  to  be 
endowed  out  of  the  forfeited  Jesuit  estates,  and  to  be  open  to 
Catholics  and  Protestants  alike.  This  enlightened  scheme, 
however,  was  opposed  by  the  French  ecclesiastics,  and  was  not 
carried  out.  Education  was  at  a  very  low  ebb,  for,  towards  the 
close  of  the  century,  the  Due  de  la  Rochefoucauld  wrote  from 
Quebec  that  '  *  the  Canadian  who  could  read  was  regarded  as 
a  phenomenon."  In  1800,  the  forfeited  Jesuit  estates  were 
assumed  by  the  crown,  and  an  effort  was  made  by  the  legislature 
to  devote  them  to  purposes  of  education  ;  but,  through  apathy  of 
the  hahitans,  or  opposition  of  the  ecclesiastics,  with  only  very 
limited  success.  An  educational  report  of  1824,  states  that 
**  generally  not  above  one-fourth  of  the  entire  population  could 
75 


594  HISTORY   OF  CANADA. 

read ;  and  not  above  one-tenth  of  them  could  write  even  imper- 
fectly." This  statement  is  corroborated  by  the  proportion  of 
"  marks  "  occurring  in  the  voluminous  petitions  presented  to 
the  legislature.  To  remedy  this  deplorable  popular  ignorance, 
the  "  Fabrique  Act"  was  passed,  in  1824,  which  provided  for 
the  establishment  by  the  cure  and  church-wardens  of  each 
parish  of  one  school  for  every  hundred  families.  This  Act  is 
the  foundation  of  the  present  school  system  of  Quebec. 

*'  On  the  union  of  the  provinces,"  writes  Dr.  Hodgins,  "  a 
comprehensive  measure  was  passed  providing  for  a  uniform 
system  of  public  education  for  Upper  and  Lower  Canada,  and 
appropriating  $200,000  a  year  for  its  maintenance.  Dr.  jNIcil- 
leur,  an  active  educationist,  was  appointed  to  superintend  the 
Lower  Canada  schools.  In  1843,  this  law  was  amended,  and, 
in  1846,  it  was  superseded  by  an  improved  measure,  which 
first  embodied  the  principle  of  compulsory  taxation.  This  was, 
however,  modified  in  1849,  so  as  to  make  it  permissive.  In 
1851,  an  attempt  was  made  to  establish  a  normal  school.  In 
1855,  Dr.  Meilleur  gave  place  to  Hon.  P.  J.  O.  Chauveau, 
LL.  D.,  who  infused  new  life  and  energy  intc  the  school  sys- 
tem of  Lower  Canada."  Dr.  Chauveau  prepared  important 
school  Acts  for  the  consolidation  and  improvement  of  the  sys- 
tems of  elementary  and  higher  education.  He  also  procured 
the  establishment  of  normal  schools  at  Montreal  and  Quebec. 
In  1867,  he  became  Minister  of  Education  in  the  Quebec  Gov- 
ernment, which  position  he  held  till  1873,  when  he  retired,  and 
was  succeeded  by  the  Hon.  Gideon  Ouimet. 

Of  the  institutions  of  higher  education,  the  more  important 
are  the  following  having  university  powers.  McGill  College, 
Montreal,  founded  by  the  will  of  the  Hon.  Peter  McGill,  in 
1811 ;  but,  owing  to  a  legal  difficulty,  not  chartered  till 
1821.  Dr.  J.  W.  Dawson,  a  distinguished  scientist,  is  presi- 
dent. It  possesses  faculties  of  arts,  law,  medicine,  and 
sciences.  *     Laval  University  and  Seminary,  Quebec,  is  a  Eoman 

*  This  ■building  is  seen  in  the  foreground  of  the  view  of  Montreal,  on  page 
446  —  the  building  vrith  the  cupola  and  two  wings.  The  one  still  nearer  is  the 
Meteorological  Observatory. 


THE  PROGRESS   OF  EDUCATION  IN  CANADA.  595 

Catholic  institution,  with  faculties  of  arts,  law,  and  theology. 
And  Bishop's  College,  Lennoxville,  incorporated  1853,  is  under 
the  control  of  the  Anglican  Church. 

Ontario.  Iu  the  province  of  Ontario  (Upper  Canada), 
from  the  very  beginning  of  its  history,  the  cause  of  education 
engaged  the  attention  of  some  of  its  most  eminent  scholars  and 
public  men,  and  was  early  made  the  subject  of  legislative 
enactment.  In  the  year  1785,  the  Eev.  Dr.  Stewart  opened  a 
classical  school  at  Kingston.  Soon  after,  a  garrison  school  was 
established  at  that  place,  as  also  at  other  military  posts.  One 
of  the  enlightened  schemes  of  Governor  Simcoe  was  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  provincial  university,  and  of  a  grammar  school  in 
each  district  of  the  province.  In  1797,  the  legislature,  then 
sitting  at  York,  memorialized  King  George  for  a  grant  of  half 
a  million  acres  of  land  for  this  purpose.  The  afterwards  cele- 
brated Dr.  Thomas  Chalmers  was  invited  to  become  principal 
of  the  projected  university  ;  but,  declining  the  position,  it  was 
offered  to  Mr.,  afterwards  Bishop,  Strachan,  a  Scottish  divinity 
student  and  schoolmaster,  who  accepted  it.  On  his  arrival  at 
Kingston,  on  the  last  day  of  the  century,  he  found  that  Gov- 
ernor Simcoe  had  left  the  country,  and  this  comprehensive 
educational  scheme  was  for  the  time  abandoned.  Mr.  Strachan 
soon  opened  a  classical  school  at  Kingston,  and,  subsequently, 
at  Cornwall,  at  which  many  of  the  leading  men  of  the  province 
received  their  scholastic  training. 

The  promoters  of  education  in  Upper  Canada  committed  the 
mistake  of  attempting  the  establishment  of  a  university  and 
grammar  schools  before  creating  their  necessary  feeders,  — 
elementary  public  schools.  It  was  not  till  after  the  war  of 
1812-14,  that  this  error  was  remedied.  By  an  Act  of  the 
legislature  in  1816,  a  public-school  system,  the  germ  of  that 
which  we  now  possess,  was  established,  and  the  sum  of  £6,000 
per  annum  was  voted  to  aid  in  paying  teachers  and  purchasing 
books.  This  sum,  however,  was,  four  years  later,  reduced  more 
than  one-half.  In  1824,  was  more  fully  organized  a  general 
system  of  education,  and  increased  grants  were  made  in  aid  of 
common  and  grammar  schools.     In  the  tumultuous  agitations 


596  HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 

accompanying  the  rebellion,  the  subject  of  education  received 
little  attention.  In  the  year  1839,  however,  the  Government 
set  apart  two  hundred  and  Mty  thousand  acres  of  land  for  the 
permanent  endo^vment  of  gi'ammar  schools,  and  a  bonus  of 
eight  hundred  dollars  was  granted  counties  which  would  devote 
a  like  amount  for  the  erectidn  of  a  grammar-school  buildino;. 

We  have  mentioned  the  legislation  of  the  first  parliament  of 
the  united  Canadas,  1841,  granting  two  hundred  thousand 
dollars  per  annum  for  educational  purposes.  Three  years  later 
this  Act  was  repealed  so  far  as  Upper  Canada  was  concerned, 
and  the  important  duty  of  re-organizing  the  common-school 
system  of  Uiiper  Canada  was  entrusted  to  »•  gentleman  emi- 
nently qualified  for  the  task,  who  has  identified  his  name 
forever  with  the  history  of  popular  education  in  his  native 
jDrovince. 

The  Rev.  Egerton  Eyerson,  LL.  D.,  was  the  son  of  a  United 
Empire  Loyalist,  who  bore  a  colonel's  commission  under  King 
George  III.  during  the  American  Revolutionary  war,  Eger- 
ton was  the  youngest  of  three  brothers,  who  all,  by  their  force 
of  character,  rose  to  eminence  in  the  ministiy  of  the  Methodist 
Church,  which  they  entered  at  a  time  when  its  ministers  and 
members  sufiered  from  serious  civil  disabilities  which  have  long 
since  been  removed.  In  the  prolonged  controversy  for  the 
disestablishment  of  the  Church  of  England  in  Canada,  and  for 
the  secularization  of  the  clergy  reserves,  Egerton  Eyerson  bore 
an  active  part.  In  a  series  of  published  papers  and  pamphlets 
he  contended  for  those  principles  of  civil  and  religious  liberty 
which  are  now  happily  recognized.  When,  in  1829,  the 
INIethodist  denomination  established  a  religious  weekly  journal, 
the  "Christian  Guardian,"  he  was  appointed  the  first  editor, 
to  which  office  he  was  twice  re-appointed,  and  which  he  held 
for  the  period  of  nine  years.  Through  his  persistent  advocacy 
it  largely  was  that  the  Methodist  Church  acquired  the  right  of 
holding  ecclesiastical  property,  and  its  ministers  the  right  of 
solemnizing  matrimony. 

After  holding  for  three  years  the  office  of  president  of  the 
University  of  Victoria  College,  founded  1841,  he  received  the 


THE  PROGRESS   OF  EDUCATION  IN  CANADA.  597 

appointment  of  Chief  Superintendent  of  Education  for  Upper 
Canada,  1844.  For  more  than  thirty  years  he  continued  to 
devote  his  energies  to  the  development  of  the  school  system  of 
the  country,  crossing  the  ocean  many  times  in  order  to  examine 
the  educational  systems  of  Europe,  and  incorporating  their 
best  features  in  that  of  his  native  province.  In  this  work  he 
has  been  assisted  by  the  co-operation  of  a  Council  of  Public 
Instruction,  composed  of  the  leading  educationists  of  the  coun- 
try. Under  the  fostering  influence  of  the  wise  and  liberal 
legislation  of  successive  parliaments,  the  public-school  system 
of  Upper  Canada  has  become  one  of  the  noblest  of  its  institu- 
tions, the  admiration  of  travellers  from  older  lands,  and  one  of 
the  surest  guarantees  of  its  future  national  prosperity. 

In  1844,  after  an  extensive  tour  of  observation  in  Europe 
and  the  United  States,  Dr.  Ryerson  submitted  an  elaborate 
report  on  the  subject  of  elementary  education,  and  prepared 
the  draft  of  a  bill,  which,  in  1846,  became  law.  The  provis- 
ions of  the  School  Act  elicited  a  good  deal  of  adverse  criticism, 
and,  three  years  later,  it  was  repealed.  In  1850,  Dr.  Ryerson 
thoroughly  revised  the  organization  of  the  school  system,  and 
submitted  the  draft  of  a  bill  to  the  Baldwin  Government,  which 
was  adopted  by  the  legislature,  and  became  the  basis  of  our 
present  school  law.  Successive  revisions  and  improvements  of 
the  School  Act,  in  1860,  1865,  and  especially  in  1871,  have 
made  the  public-school  system  of  Ontario  one  of  the  most  effi- 
cient in  existence.  It  makes  provision  for  compulsory  attend- 
ance, local  assessment,  Government  aid,  thorough  inspection, 
complete  equipment,  graded  examinations,  and  "separate" 
schools.  As  already  mentioned,  a  minister  of  the  crown,  the 
Hon.  Adam  Crooks,  gives  his  whole  attention,  assisted  by  able 
deputies,  to  the  Department  of  Education. 

To  furnish  facilities  for  the  training  and  practice  of  teachers, 
the  Provincial  Normal  School  was  established  at  Toronto  in 
1857.  The  elegant  building  shown  in  the  engraving  contains 
also  the  offices  and  book-depositary  of  the  Department  of 
Education.  In  1877,  a  brai\ch  normal  school  was  opened  at 
Ottawa.      Highly  successful  institutions  for  the  education  of 


598 


HISTORY  OF  CANADA. 


the  deaf  and  dumb,  and  of  the  blind,  have  also  been  established 

at  Belleville  and  Brantford. 

The  cause  of  higher, 
has  kept  pace  with  that  of 
elementary  education.  In 
1830,  the  Upper  Canada 
Academy  at  Cobourg,  was 
projected  by  the  Wes- 
leyan  Methodists,  and  was 
opened  four  years  xater. 
In  1841  it  became,  under 
warrant  of  a  royal  charter, 
the  University  of  Victoria 
College,  with  the  Rev.  Dr. 
Ryerson  as  its  first  jDresi- 
dent.  The  college  has 
faculties  of  arts,  law,  medi. 
xt)i{MAL  SCHOOL,  TORONTO.  ciuc,    aud    dlviuity,    and, 

under  the  continued  presidency  ^ 

for  over  twenty  years  of  the  Rev. 

Dr.  Nelles,  has  attained  a  high 

degree  of  prosperity.      Queen's 

College,   Kingston,    under  the 

management    of    the    Kirk    of 

Scotland,  about  the  same  time 

received      university     powers. 

The  following  year,  the  Univer- 
sity of  King's  College,  Toronto, 

was      organized,     and     placed 

under  the  control  of  the  Angli- 
can Church,  with  Dr.  Strachan 

as  its  first  president.    In  1849, 

the  college  was  thrown  ojDcn,  as 

a   provincial  institution,  to  all^ 

denominations,  under  the   dis- 
tinguished   presidency   of    the 

Rev.  Dr.  McCaul,  and  received  the  name  of  Toronto  Univer 


COLLEGE  AVENUE,  TORONTO. 


THE  PROGRESS   OF  EDUCATION  IN  CANADA. 


m 


sity.  In  1858,  the  University  and  University  College  took 
possession  of  the  imposing  group  of  buildings  shown  at  the 
head  of  this  chapter.  The  no1)le  avenue  leading  up  to  the 
college  is  sho-^ai  in  the  accompanying  cut. 

Bishop  Strachan,  and  a  number  of  leading  members  of  the 
Church  of  England,  dissatisfied  with  the  change  of  basis  of 
King's  College,  determined  to  have  a  university  under  exclu- 
sively Anglican  control.  The  venerable  bishop,  then  in  his 
seventy-second  year,  proceeded  to  England  to  obtain  a  charter 
and  procure  financial  aid,  in  both  which  objects  he  was  success- 
ful.    The  college  has  faculties  of  divinity,  arts,  and  medicine. 


KXOX  COIXEGE,  TORONTO. 


In  184:G,  Regiopolis  CoUege,  Kingston;  in  1848,  St.  Joseph's 
College,  Ottawa,  and,  in  1852,  St.  Michael's  College,  Toronto, 
were  organized  under  the  control  of  the  Eoman  Catholic 
Church.  In  1857,  the  Baptist  Church  established  the  Wood- 
stock Literary  Institute ;  and  the  Episcopal  Methodists,  the 
Belleville  Seminary,  which,  in  1866,  received  a  university  char- 
ter as  Albert  College.  These  institutions  are  for  both  sexes. 
In  1865,  Helmuth  College  for  boys,  London,  was  established 
in  the  interest  of  the  Church  of  England;  and,  in  1869, 
Helmuth  College  for  girls. 


600  HISTORY  OF  CANADA, 

Knox  College,  Toronto,  a  theological  institution,  under  the 
control  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  Canada,  was  first  estab- 
lished in  1844.  In  1876,  it  occupied  the  commodious  and 
handsome  buildings  shown  in  the  engraving. 

Provision  for  the  higher  education  of  young  ladies  has  also 
been  made  by  the  estal^lishment  of  proprietary  institutions  or 
colleges,  for  the  most  part  under  denominational  control.  The 
more  prominent  of  these  are  :  the  Wesley  an  Ladies'  College, 
Hamilton,  and  Ontario  Ladies'  College,  Whitby,  under  ]\Iethod- 
ist  auspices  ;  the  Bishop  Strachan  School,  Toronto,  and  Helmuth 
Ladies' College,  London,  under  Anglican  control;  the  Brant- 
ford  Ladies'  College,  under  Presbyterian  management ;  together 
with  Albert  College,  and  the  Woodstock  Literary  Institute,  for 
both  sexes,  previously  mentioned,  and  a  number  of  Roman 
Catholic  conventual  institutions. 

Nova  Scotia.  In  this  province  the  cause  of  elementary 
education  has  only  of  late  received  that  attention  to  which  it  is 
entitled.  The  legislature,  indeed,  for  a  long  series  of  years, 
made  an  annual  grant  in  aid  of  public  schools  on  condition  of 
a  similar  amount  being  raised  by  local  effort ;  but,  for  a  long 
period,  there  was  no  thorough  organization  of  the  school  sys- 
tem. The  people  in  any  school  district  might  have  a  school, 
or  not,  as  they  chose,  and  they  often  chose  to  do  without.  A 
great  impulse  was  given  to  the  cause  of  education  by  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  normal  school  at  Truro  in  1855,  and,  a  still 
gi-eater  one,  by  the  appointment  of  Mr.  J.  W.  Dawson,  now  the 
distinguished  principal  of  McGill  College,  as  Superintendent 
of  Education.  In  1864,  Dr.  Tupper  submitted  to  the  legisla- 
ture the  bill  which  has  organized  the  school  system  of  the 
province  on  an  enlightened  and  efficient  basis.  It  provided  that 
the  schools  should  be  maintained  by  a  provincial  grant,  aided 
by  county  and  school-section  assessment.  A  council  of  public 
instruction  and  county  boards  were  organized  for  examining 
and  grading  teachers,  and  otherwise  carrying  out  the  j)ro visions 
of  the  law.  It  speaks  much  for  the  religious  tolerance  of  the 
country  that  no  provision  was  considered  necessary  for  ' '  sepa- 
rate "  or  denominational  schools.     The  marked  improvement  in 


THE  PROGRESS   OF  EDUCATION  IN  CANADA.  601 

the  structure,  organization,  and  attendance  of  the  public  schools 
on  the  introduction  of  this  system  was  at  once  demonstrated, 
and  has  every  year  become  more  apparent.  Taxation  being 
compulsory,  and  the  schools  free,  even  those  at  first  opposed  to 
the  new  order  of  things  soon  embraced  its  striking  advantages. 

In  jiro vision  for  higher  education,  few  countries  of  the  popu- 
lation of  Nova  Scotia  are  so  well  supplied.  It  enjoys  the 
advantages  of  no  less  than  six  universities  ;  including  that  at 
Sackville,  belonging  jointly  to  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Bruns- 
wick. The  oldest  of  these  is  King's  College,  Windsor, 
founded  in  1788,  and  thus,  by  many  years,  the  oldest  Protest- 
ant college  in  the  Dominion.  As  King's  College  excluded  all 
but  members  of  the  Church  of  England,  Dalhousie  College 
was,  in  1820,  established  at  Halifax,  chiefly  through  the  efforts 
of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  although  not  under  denominational 
control.  It  was  sustained  partly  from  the  "  Castiue  Fund,"  — 
the  proceeds  of  the  capture  of  Castine,  in  Maine,  in  1814,  — 
and  partly  by  legislative  grants.  In  1838,  was  founded  Acadia 
College,  in  the  interest  of  the  Baptist  denomination,  and,  two 
years  later,  it  received  a  university  charter.  In  1843,  the 
AVesleyan  Methodists  of  the  maritime  provinces,  established  an 
academy  at  Mount  Allison,  Sackville,  N.  B.,  which,  however, 
did  not  receive  university  powers  till  1862.  Two  Eoman 
Catholic  Colleges  were  also  established,  —  St.  Mary's,  at  Hali- 
fax, in  1840,  and  St.  Frangois  Xavier  College,  at  Antigonish, 
in  1855.  All  of  these  institutions  receive  a  yearly  grant  from 
the  legislature,  which  is  supplemented  by  fees  and  denomina- 
tional contributions.  * 

In  1876  was  estal^lished,  by  an  Act  of  the  provincial  legisla- 
ture, the  University  of  Halifax.  It  takes  no  part  in  the  work 
of  teaching  ;  its  functions,  like  those  of  the  London  University, 
being  chiefly  to  hold  examinations  in  arts,  law,  and  medicine, 
and  to  Confer  degrees.  It  invites  the  affiliation  of  the  denomi- 
national colleges,  but  their  legislative  gi-ants  are  not  contingent 
upon  such  affiliation. 

"  In  1876,  tho  income   of  these  six  colleges,  was  $34,921 ;   of  tliis,  $10,800 
was  granted  by  the  legislature. 
76 


mSTORT  OF  CANADA. 


THE   PROGRESS   OF  EJ^UCATIOX  IX  C AX  ADA.  G03 

The  cut  on  the  opposite  page  represents  the  public-school 
buildings  at  Yarmouth,  containing  the  seminary  and  eight 
departments  of  the  common  school.  It  is  one  of  the  largest 
and  most  successful  m  the  province. 

Kew  Brunswick.  The  legislatm-e  of  New  Brunswick,  as 
early  as  1823,  passed  an  Act  encouraging  the  establishment  of 
parish  schools.  Ten  years  later,  a  general  Act  was  passed 
granting  aid  to  the  extent  of  one  hundred  and  sixty  pounds  in 
each  parish,  if  as  much  were  raised  by  local  effort, — the  aggi-e- 
gate  amount  being  about  twelve  thousand  pounds  per  annum. 
Successive  acts  of  legislation  improved  the  character  and 
organization,  and  increased  the  support  of  these  schools  till  the 
parish  allowance  reached  the  amount  of  six  hundred  and  sixty 
pounds  a  year.  A  normal  and  model  school  were  established  at 
St.  John,  —  afterward  removed  to  Fredericton, — and  provhi- 
cial  and  county  superintendents  of  public  instruction  appointed. 
Such  was  the  efficiency  of  the  school  system  that,  in  1865, 
there  were  in  the  province  nine  hundred  schools  in  successful 
operation,  besides  fifty  superior  and  denominational  schools. 
One  of  the  results  of  confederation  was  the  adoption,  in  1871, 
of  a  school  system  modelled  on  that  of  Ontario.  We  have 
already  narrated  the  agitation  and  acrimonious  debate  which 
resulted  from  the  application  of  this  law  to  the  separate  schools 
of  Kew  Brunswick.  The  system  of  non-sectarian  schools  was 
sustained  by  a  large  majority.  In  1875,  as  we  have  seen,  a 
serious  school-riot  took  place,  but  an  effort  has  been  made  to 
remove  any  just  ground  of  discontent  with  the  school  law,  from 
which  the  best  results  may  be  anticipated. 

The  University  of  New  Brunswick,  originally  known  as 
King's  College,  was  founded  as  such  by  royal  charter  in  1828, 
and  only  assumed  its  present  name  in  18G0.  Established  as  a 
Church  of  England  institution,  it  was  considered  too  sectarian 
and  exclusive  in  its  character,  and  the  several  attempts  made  to 
modify  it  failed  to  give  general  satisfaction.  In  the  legislative 
sessions  of  1858-59,  it  was  made  non-sectarian  in  character, 
and  eliciting  broader  sympathies  as  the  University  of  New 
Brunswick,  entered  upon  a  career  of  increased  efficiency  and 


604 


HISTORY  dp  CANADA. 


success.  The  origin  of  the  Sackville  college  we  have  already- 
described.  It  enjoys  the  unique  position  of  receiving  legisla- 
tive aid  from  both  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick.  The 
Presbyterians  have  also  a  college  at  Woodstock,  and  an 
academy  at  Chatham. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  NEW  BRTTNSWICK,  FREDERICTON. 

Prince  Edward  Island.  On  the  first  distribution  of  lands 
by  lottery,  in  the  year  1767,  as  before  described,  thirty  acres 
were  reserved  in  each  township  for  a  schoolmaster.  The  legis- 
lature made  annual  grants  in  aid  of  education  from  as  early  as 
1808,  but  they  were  meagre  in  amount  and  meagre  in  results. 
Enlightened  legislation  established  free  schools  in  1852,  and 
the  school  gi'ant  was  soon  raised  to  the  liberal  sura  of  twelve 
thousand  pounds  per  annum.  Since  the  period  of  confedera- 
tion the  school  system  has  been  greatly  developed  and 
improved,  and  the  popular  elections  have  declared  emphatically 
in  favor  of  non-sectarian  education. 

An  academy  for  higher  education  was  established  in  Char- 
lotteto\\ai  in  1836,  and  a  normal  school  in  1856.     The  educa- 


THE  PROGRESS   OF  EDUCATIOX  7.V  CANADA.  G05 

tional  pyramid  was  completed  in  1861,  by  the  addition  of  the 
Prince  of  Wales  College,  a  memorial  of  the  visit  of  His  Royal 
Highness  the  previous  year. 

Manitoba.  A  school  system  of  a  liberal  character  was 
organized  in  the  "prairie  province  "  in  the  first  session  of  its 
first  parliament  in  1871.  A  provincial  board  of  education  was 
constituted,  with  two  superintendents,  — one  a  Protestant,  and 
the  other  a  Eoman  Catholic, — and  aided  by  a  grant  of  six 
thousand  dollars.  The  rapid  influx  of  population,  however, 
demands  and  receives  increased  legislative  and  local  appropria- 
tions. The  Presbyterians,  Methodists,  Church  of  England, 
and  Eoman  Catholics,  have  their  denominational  institutions ; 
and  already  a  Provincial  University  has  been  organized,  on  the 
model  of  Halifax  and  London  Universities,  for  the  j^urpose  of 
holding  examinations,  and  giving  degrees.  The  educational 
future  of  the  great  North-west  is  full  of  promise. 

British  Columbia.  The  school  system  of  British  Columbia 
was  organized  in  April,  1872,  and  was  modelled  largely  upon 
that  of  Ontario.  The  legislature  struck  a  liberal  kej^-note  by 
the  generous  vote  of  forty  thousand  dollars  a  year  for  educa- 
tional purposes.  This  is  designed  to  supersede  the  levying  of 
rates  by  school  trustees,  and  to  cover,  in  part  at  least,  the  cost 
of  school  erections. 

Thus,  in  each  province  of  our  young  Dominion  have  been 
laid,  broad  and  deep,  in  their  public-school  systems  and  insti- 
tutions for  higher  learning,  the  foundations  of  national  great- 
ness and  prosperity.  The  imiversal  difi'usion  of  the  elements 
of  education,  and  the  union  of  intellectual  culture  with  moral 
worth  ;  an  intelligent  love  of  the  noble  country  which  is  ours, 
and  an  earnest  endeavour  to  seek  its  highest  welfare ;  a  gen- 
erous love  of  liberty,  and  a  firm  resolve  to  maintain  the  self- 
government  of  the  people  through  their  freely  chosen  represen- 
tatives in  the  councils  of  the  country, — these  shall  be  the 
pledges  of  the  stability  of  our  institutions,  these  shall  be  the 
corner-stone  of  our  national  greatness. 


INDEX 


Abenaquis,  ravages  of,  172. 
Abcrcrombie,  Lord,  211,  212;  defeat  of,  222-225. 
Abraham,  Plains  of,  247-250. 

Acadian  Neutrals,  194,  205-207 ;  expulsion  of,  207-209. 

Acadia  colonized,  52 ;  under  Razille  and  D'Aulnay,  105-110.    See  Nova  Scotia 
Acadia  College,  601. 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  Treaty  of,  192. 
Alabama  Claims,  547. 
Allan,  Sir  Hugh,  552,  555. 

America,  Discovery  of,  16-23 ;  origin  of  name,  24 ;  whence  peopled,  37 
American  Revolution,  273,  et  seq. 

American  War  of  1812-14 ;  causes  of,  301-303 ;  effects  of,  326,  340. 
American  Civil  War,  448,  449 ;  effects  on  Canada,  460,  462,  467. 

Amherst,  General,  220,  232 ;  captures  Ticanderoga  and  Crown  Point,  233,  234 ;  at  Mon- 
treal, 255,  256. 
Amnesty,  Red  River,  564. 
Anglin,  T.  W.,  560,  579,  iiote;  584,  note. 
Annapolis,  167.    See  Port  Royal. 
Anti-Confederation  Movement,  466, 467,  511,  552. 
Arbitration,  Geneva,  214. 
Argall,  Captain,  55,  56, 
Arnold,  Benedict,  besieges  Quebec,  277-280. 
Aroostook  War,  503. 
Arthur,  Sir  George,  385. 
Ashburton  Treaty,  508. 
Assiniboia,  Council  of,  535. 
Aylmer,  Lord,  363. 

Bagot,  Sir  Charles,  400-402. 

Baldwin,  Robert,  358,  379, 402,  408,  418, 443. 

Baltimore,  Battle  of,  337. 

Barclay,  Captain,  321. 

Beauhamois,  Marquis  de,  184. 

Beaver  Dams,  exploit  at,  317. 

Belleau,SirN.F.,524, 

Berlin  Decree,  301. 

«'  Better  Terms  "  given  Nova  Scotia,  526,  527. 

Bidwells,  The,  354, 374. 

Bigot,  M.,  195 ;  his  villainy,  214-218 ;  his  fall,  259,  260. 

Blake,  Edward,  549,  and  note. 

"  Bloody  Run,"  fight  at,  2G5. 

Boulton,  Major,  at  Red  River,  540. 


608  INDEX. 

Boundary  Award,  508. 

Boundary  Disputes,  503,  507,  508. 

Boyd,  John,  582,  583. 

Bouquet,  Colonel,  266,  269. 

Braddock,  General,  199;  defeat  of,  200-202. 

Bradstrect,  212, 223,  225,  268. 

Brant,  Joseph,  298. 

Breheuf,  83 ;  his  martyrdom,  92,  93. 

British  Columbia,  543,  572. 

British  North  America  Act,  520-524. 

Brock,  General,  Governor  of  Upper  Canada,  296 ;  captures  General  Hull,  304-306 ;  death 

of,  307 ;  his  monument,  308,  and  note,  394. 
Brown,  George,  425,  436 ;  forms  cabinet,  440 ;  his  "joint  authority  "  resolutions,  444, 445 ; 

enters  coalition  ministry,  460 ;  leaves  cabinet,  469 ;  enters  senate,  560. 
Burgoyne,  281 ;  surrender  of,  283. 
Bushy  Run,  Tragedy  of,  266,  267. 

Cabots,  The,  25,  26. 

Caens,  De,  64. 

Callieres,  150,  170. 

Campbell,  Sir  Alexander,  505,  506. 

Campbell,  Sir  Colin,  490-492. 

Canada,  Discovery  of,  28 ;  origin  of  name,  57,  note  ;  under  Hundred  Associates,  65-104 ; 
royal  government,  in,et  seq. ;  surrender  of,  256 ;  effects  of  conquest,  257, 258, 269, 270 
(see  War  of  1812-14)  ;  Canada  trade  act,  353 ;  American  invasion  of,  275-282 ;  rebel- 
lion in,  363-389 ;  Dominion  of,  520,  et  seq. 

Canada  Land  Company,  358. 

Canada  Pacific  Railway,  552,  561. 

Carignan  Regiment,  1 16. 

Carillon,  fall  of,  233-235. 

Carleton,  Colonel,  499-510. 

Carleton,  Sir  Guy,  270-283 ;  Lord  Dorchester,  115 ;  leaves  Canada,  299. 

Caroline,  destruction  of  the,  3S3,  305. 

Cartier,  Jacques,  28 ;  explores  St.  Lawrence,  29 ;  at  Hochelaga,  30 ;  winters  at  Quebec,  31. 

Cartier,  Su-  George  E.,  425,  441 ;  death  of,  553. 

Cathcart,  General,  404. 

Censitaires,  121. 

Census,  450. 

Centennial  Exhibition,  Canada  at  the,  571,  572. 

Champlain,  Samuel  de,  49-69 ;  founds  Quebec,  57 ;  discovers  Lake  Champlain,  and  ex- 
plores the  Ottawa,  59;  discovers  Lakes  Huron,  Simcoe,  and  Ontario,  60,  61 ;  war  with 
Senecas,  63 ;  surrenders  to  lurk,  67 ;  returns  to  Canada,  68 ;  death,  ib. ;  character  of, 
69. 

Charlevoix,  Pere,  180. 

Charlottetown  Conference,  462,  463. 

Chateauguay,  Battle  of,  324. 

Chauncey,  Commodore,  310,  314,  315, 319. 

Chauvin  founds  Tadousac,  49. 

Chesapeake,  The,  taken,  327. 

Chippewa,  Battle  of,  331. 

Chrj-sler's  Farm,  Battle  of,  323. 

Clergy  Reserves,  394,  421,  426. 

Colleges,  Canadian,  592,  605 ;  ladies'  do.,  600. 


INDEX.  609 

Colbert,  112, 114. 

Colbornc,  3.3S-3G2;  suppresses  rebellion,  369-371. 

Columhiis,  Christopher,  20-23. 

Commission,  Joint  High,  548. 

Commune,  The,  545. 

Company  of  the  Hundred  Associates,  65,  77, 104,  111. 

Confederation  Proposed,  461-465,  497 ;  adopted,  466 ;  accomplished,  478,  498,  520. 

Conquest  of  Canada,  237,  et  seq. ;  etfects  of,  257,  258,  269,  270. 

Constitutional  Act,  289,  290. 

Constitution  of  Canada,  521-524. 

Cortereal,  27. 

Corrigau  Trial,  The,  432. 

Courcclles,  M.  de,  117, 118. 

Coureurs  de  bois,  122,  185, 528. 

Craig,  Sir  James,  300,  301. 

Creve  Coeur,  137. 

Crimean  War,  428,  429. 

Crooks,  Hon.  A.,  572, 579. 

Crown  Point,  203,  204. 

Da  Gama,  24. 

D'Aillcboust,  M.,  101.  '  ■ 

Dalhousie  College,  601. 

Dalhousie,  Earl  of,  345-348. 

Daniel,  Pore,  murdered,  91. 

D'Argenson,  102,  103. 

Dates  of  Early  Settlements,  44,  note ;  74,  note. 

D'Aulnay  in  Acadia,  105-109. 

D'Avaugour,  103, 104. 

Dawson,  594,  600. 

Dead-Lock,  Political,  458,  459. 

Dearborn,  General,  routed  at  Lacolle,  310 ;  at  York,  314 ;  beleaguered  in  Fort  George, 

317. 
De  Boucherville  Ministry,  585-587. 
Deerficld,  Massacre  of,  173,  174. 
De  Mezy,  112, 114, 116. 
De  Monts,  51-57. 

Dennis,  Colonel,  at  Fort  Erie,  475 ;  at  Red  River,  538. 
Denonville,  M.  De,  150,  151. 
De  Tracy,  116-120. 

Detroit  founded,  171 ;  Pontiac  at,  262-268 ;  captured  by  Brock,  304-306. 
D'Ibervillc,  1G5-167, 169. 
Dieskau,  defeat  of,  203,  204. 
Dighton  Rock  Inscription,  19,  20. 
Donnacona,  30. 
Dorchester,  Lord,  288-299. 
Dorion,  A.  A.,  426,  456. 
"Double  Majority,"  397,  449. 
"Double  Shuflae,"  The,  442. 
Douglas,  Lord,  530. 
Drake,  45. 

Draper,  394,  402,  407. 
Drummond,  General,  332,  342. 
77 


610  '        INDEX. 

Dnfferin,  Lord,  550-589. 

Du  Quesne,  Fort,  196, 200 ;  fall  of,  226,  227. 

Du  Quesne,  M.,  195. 

Durham,  Lord,  370 ;  his  report,  371,  390. 

Earliest  Settlements,  Dates  of,  44,  note ;  74,  note. 

Earle,  S.  Z.,  581. 

Earthquake  in  Canada,  104. 

Education  in  Canada,  592-605. 

Egg  Islands,  Catastrophe  at,  177,  178. 

Elgin,  Lord,  406 ;  mobbed,  410-412 ;  resigns,  428. 

English  Colonization,  70-74. 

Erie,  Fort,  Battle  of,  333 ;  Fenians  at,  475. 

Erie,  Lake,  Battle  on,  321. 

"  Family  Compact,"  The,  350,  353,  356,  358,  490. 

Fenians,  The,  471 ;  invasion  of,  472-477;  repulse  of,  475-477;  trials,  479;  last  raids  of, 

543. 
Fishery  Award,  583,  584. 
Fitzgibbon,  Lieutenant,  gallant  exploit  of,  312. 
Five  Nations,  The.    See  Iroquois. 
Fort  Garry,  538. 
Franco-Prussian  "War,  545. 
Franklin,  Benjamin,  198;  at  Montreal,  281. 
French  Towti  surprised,  313. 
Frobisher,  45, 

Frontenac,  129-148 ;  second  administration  of,  155-168 ;  death  of,  168. 
Frontenac,  Fort,  founded,  131-133. 
Fugitive  Slave  Extradition,  448. 
Fur  Companies,  rival,  558,  et  seq. 
Fur  Trade,  114,  122,  185,  528-530. 

Gallows  Hill,  fight  at,  380. 

Gait,  Sir  A.  T.,  441. 

Gavazzi  riots,  412,  413. 

Geneva  Arbitration,  214. 

George,  Battles  of  Lake.    See  Ticonderoga. 

Ghent,  Treaty  of,  339. 

Gibson,  Aleixander,  583. 

Gilbert,  Sir  Humphrey,  46. 

Gore,  Francis,  Governor  of  Upper  Canada,  295 ;  returns,  349-353. 

Gosford,  Lord,  365-370. 

Gourlay,  Robert,  351,  352. 

Grand  Pre,  tragedy  of,  208, 

"  Great  Eastern,"  The,  480. 

Griffin,  The,  136. 

Guibord  riots,  566. 

Guyart,  Marie  (de  1'  Incarnation),  76. 

Haldimand,  General,  282. 

Halifax  founded,  193,  194 ;  in  war  time,  285 ;  University  of,  601. 

Hampton,  General,  324. 

Harrison,  General,  invades  Upper  Canada,  321. 


LWDEX.  611 

Harvey,  Sir  John,  493-495,  507. 

Haverhill,  massacre  of,  174. 

Head,  Sir  Edmund,  430-450. 

Head,  Sir  Francis,  362,  371 ;  awaits  rebellion,  375 ;  recalled,  385. 

Hennepin,  Father,  135-137,  139. 

Henry,  Captain,  302,  303. 

Hertel  dc  Rouville,  157, 158. 

Hincks,  Francis,  401,  418,  423,  424,  428. 

Hochelaga,  30. 

Hodgins,  Dr.,  quoted,  594. 

Howe,  Joseph,  470,  490,  492,  493,  498,  526,  554. 

Howe,  Lord,  death  of,  223. 

Hudson,  Henry,  48,  note. 

Hudson's  Bay,  French  and  English  in,  127,  168. 

Hudson's  Bay  Company,  528,  et  seq. 

Hudson's  Bay  Territory,  525 ;  ceded  to  Canada,  537. 

Hull,  General,  surrenders,  306. 

Hundred  Associates,  The,  65,  77,  104,  111. 

Hunter,  Major-General,  293-295. 

'♦  Hunter's  Lodges,"  382,  386. 

Huntington,  Mr.,  charges  of,  553. 

Hurons,  60-62,  84-96. 

Huron  Missions,  84,  90 ;  destroyed,  90-96. 

Immigration,  large,  364,  407. 

Indians,  Origin  of  name,  34 ;  the  mound-builders,  34-37 ;  characteristics,  38 ;  wars,  40 ; 

superstitions,  41 ;  tribes,  42 ;  present  locations,  43.    See  Hurons,  Iroquois,  etc. 
Intendant,  The,  Duties  of,  112. 
Intercolonial  Railway,  494. 
Iroquois,  42 ;  wars  with,  58,  63,  79,  148 ;  incursions  of,  90-94,  96,  139,  152,  153,  163. 

Jamestown,  founding  of,  70-72. 

Jesuits  in  Acadia,  55 ;  in  Canada,  64,  75,  80 ;  missions  of,  81-100 ;  explorers,  82,  125, 

130,  185. 
Jognes,  Pere,  82,  83. 

Johnson,  Sir  William,  198,  203,  204,  230-232,  268, 
"  Joint  Authority  Resolutions,"  444,  445. 
Jolict,  130. 

Joly  Ministry,  587,  588. 
Jonquiere,  M.  de  la,  191-195. 
Judges,  appointment  of,  523. 
Jumonville,  M.,  196. 

Kehecca  Liherata,  162. 

Kempt,  Sir  James,  363. 

King's  College,  Toronto,  595,  598 ;  Windsor,  601 ;  Fredericton,  603. 

Kingston,  seat  of  government,  396,  397. 

Kirk,  Admiral,  captures  Quebec,  67. 

Knox  College,  600. 

Kondiaronk,  the  Rat,  treachery  of,  152,  153 ;  death  of,  171. 

Lachin^,  massacre  of,  153. 
Lafontaine,  Sir  L.  H.,  400. 


612  INDEX. 

Lalemant,  Pere,  87. 

La  Salle,  131 ;  Iiis  explorations,  134-146;  plants  Texan  colony,  142-144;  death  of,  ib. 

La  Tours,  Tbe,  67,  68 ;  the  younger,  adventures  of,  105-109. 

La  Tour,  Madame,  heroism  of,  106-108. 

Lauson,  De,  102. 

Laval,  Abbe,  102,  111,  112,  148,  594. 

Legislatures,  Dominion,  521,  522 ;  local,  523. 

Lepine,  564. 

Lescarbot,  53. 

Levi,  M.  De,  253,  254. 

Lincoln,  Death  of,  467. 

Lome,  Marquis  of,  550,  590. 

Loudon,  Lord,  211,  215. 

Louisburg,  Siege  of,  188-190 ;  second  siege,  220-222. 

Louise,  Princess,  550,  590. 

Lower  Canada,  Organization  of,  300 ;  rebellion  in,  363-372. 

Loyalists,  United  Empire,  385-387,  485,  486. 

Lundy's  Lane,  Battle  of,  332,  333. 

Macdonald,  Colonel,  307. 

Macdonald,  J.  Sandfleld,  426,  549. 

Macdonald,  Sir  John  A.,  433,  435 ;  resigns  government,  557. 

Macdougall,  Hon.  William,  458 ;  at  Red  River,  538. 

Mackenzie,  Hon.  Alexander,  558,  and  note. 

Mackenzie,  William  Lyon,  356,  357,  360,  361 ;  rebels,  376 ;  attacks  Toronto,  377-380 ;  at 

Navy  Island,  381 ;  in  prison,  388,  389 ;  his  death,  450. 
Maisonnenve,  77. 
Maitland,  Sir  Peregrine,  344,  353. 
Manitoba  Act,  541 ;  education  in,  605. 
Marquette,  Pere,  125,  130. 
McClure  bums  Niagara,  325. 
McGee,  T.  D'Arcy,  439 ;  shot,  525. 
McGill  College,  594. 
McLean's  Sedition,  300. 

McNab,  Colonel,  and  Sir  Allan,  380,  383,  403,  424,  425,  432. 
Metcalfe,  Sir  Charles,  402-404. 
Meigs,  Fort,  Siege  of,  320. 
Michilimackinac,  334. 
Miramichi,  great  fire  of,  502,  503. 

Missions,  Huron,  81-90 ;  destruction  of,  91-96 ;  Onondaga,  98-100 ;  Abenaquis,  181-184. 
Mohawks,  expeditions  against,  117, 119,  164. 
Monck,  Lord,  451-528. 

Montcalm,  Marquis  de,  211-215,  220,  223-225,  227,  239-249;  death  of,  250-251. 
Montgomery,  Richard,  276-279. 
Montmagny,  74. 
Montmorency,  fight  at,  243-245, 
Montreal  named,  30;  founded,  77-79;  surrender  of,  256;  public  buildings,  573,  575; 

party  riots  in,  588 ;  parliament  buildings  burned,  410,  411. 
Moodie,  Colonel,  killed,  378. 
Moravian  Town,  Battle  of,  321,  322. 
Mound-builders,  The,  34-37. 
Mounted  police,  The,  565. 
Municipal  Institutions,  398,  415. 


IXDEX.  613 

Municipal  Loan  Fund,  419. 

Murray,  General,  at  Quebec,  253-255 ;  military  governor,  258-270. 

Navy  Island,  381. 

Nelson,  Robert,  371. 

Nelson,  Wolfred,  367,  368. 

New  Brunswick,  486;  organization  of  government,  499;  great  fire  in,  502,503;  crown- 
Land  grievances,  505 ;  boundary  disputes,  503,  507,  508 ;  anti-Confcderatc,  466,  467, 
511;  school-law  troubles,  567-569 ;  education  in,  COS. 

New  England  Colonies,  72. 

Newfoundland  discovered,  26;  fisheries,  27,  45;  French  and  English  in,  127,  167,  176, 
483. 

New  Orleans,  Battle  of,  337-339. 

Newport  Tower,  19. 

New  York,  taken  from  Dutch,  115. 

Niagara,  Fort,  captured  from  the  French,  430-432;  seat  of  government  (Newark),  490- 
492;  captured  by  Americans,  315,  316,  325,  326;  burned,  325. 

Normal  Schools,  597,  600,  603. 

Norsemen,  The,  18-20. 

North-west  Company,  529. 

North-west  Territory',  537,  538. 

Nova  Scotia  colonized,  52 ;  charter  granted,  66 ;  government  organized,  193,  194,  482 ; 
in  war  time,  285,  483-485,  487 ;  "  Family  Compact "  in,  490,  491 ;  anti-Confederate. 
526;  "Better  terms  "  granted,  526,  527;  education  in,  600",  601. 

Odelltown,  fight  at,  329,  371. 

Ohio  Company,  195. 

Onondaga  Mission,  98-100. 

Orange  processions,  588. 

"  Order  of  the  Good  Time,"  The,  54. 

Ormeaux,  Dulac  des.  Heroism  of,  100,  101 

Oswego  taken,  211-213. 

Ottawa  selected  as  capital,  440 ;  becomes  seat  of  government,  468.  • 

"  Pacific  Scandal,"  The,  553-556. 

Packenham,  General,  at  New  Orleans,  337-339. 

Papineau,  Louis,  344,  347,  365-367. 

Paris,  Peace  of,  269. 

Parliament  Building  at  Montreal  burned,  410,  411. 

Parliament,  first,  of  United  Canadas,  396,  397;  first,  of  Dominion,  525. 

Parr  Town,  founding  of,  485. 

Party  riots  in  Montreal,  588. 

"  Patriot "  'War,  382-389. 

Peltrie,  Madame  de  la,  76. 

Pemaquid,  Fort,  taken,  165,  166. 

Pepperell,  William,  captures  Louisburg,  188-190. 

Perry's  Victory  on  Lake  Erie,  321. 

Phips,  Sir  William,  takes  Port  Royal,  15^;  attacks  Quebec,  160-162. 

Pilgrimage  riots  at  Toronto,  567. 

Pitt,  William,  210,  219,  228,  260. 

Plains  of  Abraham,  247-250. 

Plattsburg,  attack  on,  334. 

Plymouth,  founding  of,  72 


614  INDEX. 

Pontiac,  Conspiracy  of,  262-269. 

Tort  Royal  founded.  53-5o ;  pillaged  by  Argall,  56 ;  taken  by  Kirk,  66;  by  Phips,  159. 

rontgrave,  49. 

Poutrincoui-t  colonizes  Port  Royal,  53,  54,  56. 

Prescott,  General,  300. 

Prevost,  Sir  George,  301 ;  at  Sackett's  Harbour,  318 ;  retreat  from  Plattsburg,  344,  345. 

Prince  Edward  Island,  513 ;  enters  the  Dominion,  519. 

Prince  Albert,  death  of,  452. 

Prince  of  "Wales  in  Canada,  445-447 ;  marriage  of,  457. 

Privy  Council  of  Dominion,  first,  524 ;  second,  559. 

Proctor,  Col.,  at  French  Tovm,  313 ;  at  Fort  Meigs,  320 ;  at  Moravian  Town,  321. 

Protection  Resolutions,  577,  585. 

Punshon,  W.  Morley,  577. 


Qu'  Appelle  Treaty,  563. 

Quebec  founded,  57 :  origin  of  name,  ib.,  twte ;  captured  by  Kirk,  67 ;  besieged  by 
Phips,  160-162;  Walker's  attempt  against,  177,  178;  Wolfe  before,  237-247;  fall  of, 
251,  252 ;  Quebec  Act,  271 ;  besieged  by  Arnold,  279,  280 ;  fixes,  403, 467, 479 ;  Quebec 
Conference,  463,  464. 

Queenston  Heights,  Battle  of,  306-308. 

Quit-rents,  488,  514-518. 

Queen  Anne's  War,  170. 


Railways— Northern,  416 ;  Grand  Trunk,  417 ;  Intercolonial,  494,  571 ;  Canada  Pacific, 

552,  561. 
Railway  strike,  578. 
Raleigh,  Sir  Walter,  46,  47. 
Rasles,  Father,  181-184. 
RebelUon  Losses  Bill,  404,  408,  412. 

Rebelhon,  The,  Lower  Canada,  363-372 ;  Upper  Canada,  373-389. 
Reciprocity  Treaty,  414,  423,  469,  470,  5G2. 
Red  River  Settlement  founded,  530 ;  conflicts,  531 ;  privations,  533,  534 ;  prosperity,  535 ; 

rebellion,  538-542 ;  Red  River  expedition,  541,  642 ;  amnesty,  564. 
Representation  by  population,  455. 
Resolutions,  The  Ninety-frvvo,  365 ;  the  Ten,  375. 
Responsible  Government,  396-405. 
Revolutionary  War,  causes  of,  273-274. 
Riall,  General,  at  Chippewa,  331 ;  at  Lundy's  Lane,  332. 
Richelieu,  Cardinal,  65. 
Richmond,  Duke  of,  343, 344. 
Ridgeway,  fight  at,  474. 

Riel,  revolt  of,  538-542;  expelled  from  Parliament,  560. 
Roberval,  32,  33. 
Robinson,  Sir  J.  B.,  350. 
Rogers,  Major,  225,  236,  261. 
Rolph,  Dr.,  356,  379,  382,  418. 
Rouvillc,  Hertel  de,  157, 158,  172-175. 
Rupert's  Land  Act,  537. 
Russell,  Lord  John,  375. 
Ryerson,  Rev.  Dr.,  377,  596,  597. 
Ryswick,  Peace  of,  168. 


INDEX.  615 

Sackett's  Harbour,  attack  on,  318,  319. 

Sackvillc  College,  601. 

Salaberry,  De,  324. 

Salle,  La.    See  La  Salle. 

San  Jnan  ditficulty,  544. 

Schenectady  (Corlaer)  sacked,  157. 

Schultz,  Dr.,  539. 

Schiiltz,  Von,  387. 

Scott,  Thomas,  shot,  540.    See  564. 

Sea-Fights,  310,  319,  327. 

Secession,  War  of.    Sec  American  Civil  "War. 

Secord,  Mrs.,  bravery  of,  317. 

Seigneurial  Tenure,  121 ;  abolished,  427. 

Selkij-k,  Lord,  528. 

Senate,  The,  521. 

Senecas,  War  with,  151. 

Seven  Years'  War,  210. 

Sheafle,  General,  307,  308,  315. 

Sherbrooke,  Sir  John,  342,  343. 

Simcoe,  Governor,  291-293. 

Six  Nations,  The.    See  Iroquois,  etc. 

Smith,  Captain  John,  70,  71. 

Smythe,  General,  308,  309. 

Spanish  Explorations,  44. 

Stadacona,  30-32. 

Stamp  Act,  274. 

St.  Castine,  166. 

St.  Croix,  disastrous  winter  at,  52,  53. 

Ste.  Foye,  Battle  of,  253-254. 

St.  Germain-en-Laye,  Treaty  of,  68,  105. 

St.  John,  French  on  site  of,  105-109 ;  founded,  485,  499 ;  riots,  508 ;  great  fire,  580. 

St.  Just,  Letellier  De,  585. 

St.  Lawrence  discovered,  29. 

St.  Marie,  Mission  of,  89-94. 

Stony  Creek,  Battle  of,  316. 

Strachan,  Rev.  Dr.,  365,  356,  577,  595,  599. 

Southern  Raiders,  46C. 

Supremo  Council,  The,  French,  112;  English,  564. 

Sydenham,  Lord,  391-399. 

Tache,  432,  433. 

Talon,  M.,  116-128;  able  administration  of,  120,  121,  124. 

Tecumseh,  305,  320;  death  of,  322. 

Temperance  Legislation,  562,  579,  585. 

Ten  Resolutions,  The,  375. 

Thompson,  Hon.  Charles.    See  Lord  Sydenham. 

Thorpe,  Judge,  395. 

Thunder  Cape,  561. 

Ticonderoga,  attacks  on,  203,  204,  222-225 ;  fall  of,  233,  235. 

Tilley,  S.  L.,  581. 

Timber-trade,  501,  504. 

Times,  The,  on  Canada,  551. 


616  INDEX. 

Toronto  founded,  292 ;  captured,  314,  319 ;  attacked  by  rebels,  379,  380 ;  seat  of  govern- 
ment, 415,  431 ;  public  buildings  of,  574, 576,  577,  592,  598,  599. 
Tracy,  Marquis  de,  116. 
Trent  Affair,  The,  451,  452,  511. 
Trinity  College,  599. 
Turcotte,  Hon.  A.,  585. 

Union  Scheme,  391,  392;  Union  Act,  393,  394;  Union  accomplished,  396. 

United  Empire  Loyalists,  285-287,  485,  486,  499. 

Upper  Canada,  Settlement  of,  286,  287 ;  early  legislation,  291-293 ;  origin  of  parties  in, 
294;  early  condition  of,  296,  297;  "Family  Compact"  in,  350,  353,  356,  358;  rebel- 
lion in,  373-389 ;  union  with  Lower  Canada,  391-396 ;  military  strength  of,  391. 

Utrecht,  Treaty  of,  178. 

Universities,  Canadian,  592-605. 

Vancouver's  Island,  544. 
Van  Egmond,  380. 
Vaudreuil,  Marquis  de,  171. 
Verendryes,  The,  185. 
Versailles,  Peace  of,  284. 
Vespucci,  24. 
Victoria  Bridge,  445. 
Victoria  College,  598. 
Vincent,  Colonel,  315,  316,  325. 
Virginia,  Settlement  of,  70-72. 
Villebon,  on  the  St.  John,  165-167. 

"Walker,  Sir  Hovenden,  his  attempt  against  Quebec,  177, 178. 

Wampum,  41. 

War  of  1812-14 ;  causes  of,  301-303 ;  effects  of,  326,  327,  340. 

Washington  burned,  335,  336 ;  treaty  of,  547,  546,  584. 

Washington,  George,  195-197,  226,  284,  285. 

Weir,  Lieut.,  369. 

Wilkinson,  General,  322 ;  defeated  at  Chrysler's  Farm,  323 ;  at  Odelltown,  329. 

William  Henry,  Fort,  214;  massacre  of,  215,  216. 

Williams,  Sir  Fenwick,  447,  448. 

Wilmot,  Hon.  L.  A.,  506. 

Windmill  Point,  Battle  of,  387. 

Wolfe,  General,  220,  222,  227,  228 ;  before  Quebec,  237-247 ;  slain,  250. 

Wolseley,  Colonel,  541,  542,  564. 

Yeo,  Sir  James,  318,  330. 

York  founded,  292;  captured,  314,  315;  second  capture,  319. 

Young,  Rev.  George,  at  Red  River,  540. 

Young,  Sir  John,  526. 


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